Knowledge base

Hokkaido Ainu grammar as a network

What the sources say about Hokkaido Ainu grammar, as records with identifiers: topics (the questions a grammar answers), sources, interlinear examples, and statements extracted from the sources at the page where they are made. The first edition of the book is loaded as an inventory of sentence records attached to its chapters and sections; it is a work queue and a coverage measure, never evidence.

Open the network view Coverage of the section topics Where the sources disagree Start the reading path

178chapter topics

1409section topics

222sources

967examples

13807first-edition sentences

8199source statements

7455claims

Topics by part

Part I — The Language and Its Setting

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
1	Aims, Scope, and Design Philosophy of This Grammar What aims, scope, and design principles does a comprehensive reference grammar of Hokkaido Ainu adopt?	14	85	0	12	6	5
2	A Typological Profile of Hokkaido Ainu What is the typological profile of Hokkaido Ainu?	11	74	3	28	62	33
3	The Ainu People, Their Homeland, and History Who are the Ainu, what is their homeland, and how has their history shaped their present situation?	7	62	0	10	28	12
4	The Sociolinguistic Situation: Endangerment and Revitalization What is the current state of the language in terms of speakers, documentation, and revitalization?	7	73	3	16	28	21
5	The Genetic Position of Ainu: Isolate Status and Macro-Comparison Controversies How is Ainu classified genetically, and what debates surround proposed macro-relationships?	9	72	1	12	23	13
6	The History of Ainu Language Description and Previous Research How has the grammatical description of Ainu developed over time?	5	74	0	53	91	23

Part II — Sources, Conventions, Glossing, and Orthography

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
7	Written Sources: Grammars, Dictionaries, and the Philological Record What written sources are available for the language, and how are they used in grammatical description?	5	54	0	22	75	57
8	The Oral-Literature Corpus and Spoken-Language Data What types of connected-discourse data form the corpus of a grammar of Hokkaido Ainu?	9	71	4	24	13	8
9	The Dialect Sample and the Corpus-Quantification Method How does the grammar select and describe Hokkaido Ainu dialects, and what method does it use to quantify corpus frequencies?	8	69	0	37	6	2
10	Interlinear Glossing, Abbreviations, and Citation Conventions How does the grammar present and annotate Ainu examples?	6	54	1	8	3	2
11	The Latin Phonemic Transcription What conventions govern the standard Latin-based transcription of the language's phonemes?	9	61	0	18	15	5
12	Katakana Orthography and the Extended Small-Kana Codas How does the katakana orthography represent Ainu coda consonants using small kana?	10	60	0	12	31	22
13	Cyrillic and Multi-Script Rendering How are multiple scripts (Latin, katakana, Cyrillic) used for rendering Ainu?	5	32	0	12	1	0
14	Historical Orthographies and the Batchelor Tradition How were pre-phonemic Latin orthographies used for Hokkaido Ainu, and how are texts in them read and converted today?	8	61	5	19	27	10
15	Orthographic Standardization and the Word-Division Problem What orthographic conventions and word-division rules are used for Hokkaido Ainu?	9	70	1	17	12	1

Part III — Segmental Phonetics, Phonology, and Phonotactics

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
16	The Consonant Inventory and Its Phonetic Realization What consonants does Hokkaido Ainu have and how are they phonetically realized?	7	73	1	17	131	75
17	The Vowel Inventory and Vowel Realization What is the vowel system of Hokkaido Ainu, and how are its vowels realized phonetically?	10	53	1	20	130	68
18	/s/ and the s ~ š Palatalization Alternation What conditions the alternation between [s] and [ʃ] for the single fricative /s/ in Hokkaido Ainu?	7	50	1	12	15	8
19	The Rhotic /r/ and Coda-r How does the rhotic phoneme /r/ behave in onset and coda positions, and what is its role in morphophonology?	6	47	2	16	43	18
20	The Laryngeals: Glottal Stop, /h/, and the Final-h Question How do laryngeal consonants function in the language?	10	51	4	16	78	50
21	Syllable Structure, Phonotactics, and Word-Edge Constraints What are the syllable structure, phonotactic restrictions, and word-edge constraints?	7	73	1	22	159	80
22	Glides, Vowel Hiatus, and the Diphthong Question How does Hokkaido Ainu treat word-final sequences of a vowel followed by y or w?	13	75	0	13	39	31

Part IV — Prosody and the Pitch-Accent System

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
23	The Pitch-Accent Placement Rule and the Accented/Accentless Dialect Split How is the position of high pitch determined in Hokkaido Ainu, and which dialects lack pitch accent?	6	53	0	18	142	87
24	The Prosodic Unit and the Accent-versus-Tone Analysis How does the language assign prominence within a word, and is it a culminative accent or a tonal melody?	7	77	1	14	13	6
25	Lexical/Contrastive Accent and Minimal Pairs How does the language distinguish rule-derived accent from lexically specified accent, as shown by minimal pairs?	4	56	0	12	15	4
26	Accent in Compounds and under Affixation and Cliticization How does Hokkaido Ainu reorganize accent in compounds, and when affixes and clitics attach?	13	75	1	16	50	28
27	Phrasal and Utterance Intonation What intonational contours occur above the word level, and how do they distinguish utterance types?	7	48	1	13	34	16

Part V — Morphophonology and Sandhi

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
28	Assimilation and Cluster Simplification: Coda /r/, Nasals, and Clusters How does the language handle coda consonants and consonant clusters across morpheme and word boundaries?	10	73	2	15	132	81
29	Glide Epenthesis and Vowel-Hiatus Resolution How does Hokkaido Ainu resolve vowel hiatus at morpheme boundaries?	9	86	3	11	38	26
30	Citation vs Combining Stem Shapes and Support Vowels How do citation and combining stem shapes differ in Hokkaido Ainu, including support vowels, truncation, and consonant alternations?	9	72	4	11	4	1
31	Personal-Affix Junctural Sandhi, =an/a= Allomorphy, and Connected-Speech Reduction How do personal affixes undergo phonological changes at morpheme boundaries, including sandhi, allomorphy, and casual speech reductions?	7	53	2	12	41	12
32	Reduplication Phonology and Rule Interaction How does reduplication interact with phonological processes such as assimilation and epenthesis in Hokkaido Ainu?	12	61	2	11	27	19

Part VI — Word Classes and Nominal Morphology

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
33	The Word-Class Inventory and the Noun/Verb Bipartition What are the word classes in Hokkaido Ainu, and how are nouns and verbs distinguished?	14	93	7	19	106	55
34	Nominal Subclasses and Obligatorily-Possessed (Bound) Nouns What noun subclasses exist in the language, and which nouns cannot appear without a possessor?	11	75	7	19	114	58
35	The Formal / Defective Noun Set (ruwe, hawe, siri, humi, hi, pe, kur) What is the formal/defective noun set in Hokkaido Ainu and how does it function in nominalization and evidentiality?	8	68	5	18	197	111
36	Verbal Subclasses: A Valence-Based Word-Class Taxonomy What are the major verb subclasses, and how are they defined by argument count and roles?	8	80	5	23	123	56
37	The 'No Adjective Class' Thesis: Property Concepts as Stative Verbs How does Hokkaido Ainu encode property concepts like 'big' and 'good'?	12	66	5	17	83	43
38	Derivational Morphology on Nouns: Diminutive, Augmentative, and Size Modification What morphological and syntactic devices does Hokkaido Ainu use to express diminutive, augmentative, and size modification on nouns?	8	51	4	9	48	33
39	Noun–Noun Compounding: Headedness, Linking, and Semantics How does Hokkaido Ainu form noun-noun compounds, and what are their headedness, linking, and semantic patterns?	16	72	9	15	64	43
40	Deverbal and Denominal Noun Derivation (Lexical Nominalizer Morphology) How does Hokkaido Ainu derive lexical nouns from verbs and nouns using nominalizers?	12	71	7	18	50	28
41	Nominal Number: Transnumerality, -utar, and the Locus of Plurality How does the language express number on nouns, and what is the division between nominal and verbal plurality?	7	55	7	21	73	45
42	The Structure of the Noun Phrase What is the internal structure of a noun phrase, including modifier order and modification strategies?	9	58	10	21	134	66

Part VII — Possession and the Affiliative System

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
43	The Alienable/Inalienable Split and Possessive Classification How does the language distinguish alienable from inalienable possession?	5	83	5	21	104	50
44	Concept Form vs. Affiliative (Possessed) Form What is the distinction between the concept form and the affiliative form of nouns in Hokkaido Ainu?	8	75	5	26	300	151
45	Morphophonology of the Affiliative Suffix and Echo/Copy Vowels How does the possessive suffix on common nouns vary in form, and what vowel-copy or echo processes determine its vowel quality?	11	73	4	27	186	80
46	Adnominal Possession: Double Marking and the Appositive Construction How does the language mark adnominal possession within a noun phrase?	5	56	5	21	120	44
47	External Possession and Possessor Raising How does the language express the possessor of an inalienable noun as a core argument of the clause?	7	50	6	14	2	1
48	Kinship and Honorific Possession How does the language mark possession of kinship terms, and what are the irregular or honorific patterns?	8	50	6	16	75	47

Part VIII — Pronouns, Demonstratives, Postpositions, and Numerals

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
49	Personal, Reflexive, and Emphatic Pronouns How do independent personal pronouns function in a language where person is obligatorily marked on the verb?	9	58	5	20	210	146
50	Demonstratives, Anaphora, and Definiteness How does Hokkaido Ainu use demonstratives for deictic pointing and anaphoric tracking, and how does it express definiteness without articles?	7	69	5	15	171	116
51	Interrogative, Indefinite, and Negative-Polarity Pro-forms How are interrogative, indefinite, and negative-polarity pro-forms formed and distributed across dialects and contexts?	6	61	7	14	159	127
52	Relational and Spatial (Locative) Nouns and Their Possessed Forms How does Hokkaido Ainu encode spatial relations using obligatorily possessed relational nouns?	9	99	8	22	323	216
53	Postpositions, Local Case, Motion Events, Comitative, and Instrumental What postpositions, local cases, motion event encoding, and comitative/instrumental markers does Hokkaido Ainu have, and how do they pattern?	8	71	12	23	410	225
54	The Vigesimal Numeral System How does the language structure its numeral system, and what are the grammatical categories of numerals?	9	74	8	15	128	100
55	Numeral Classifiers, Ordinals, and Quantifier Syntax How do numeral words, classifiers, ordinals, and quantifiers behave syntactically in Hokkaido Ainu?	13	94	12	14	130	51

Part IX — The Verb: Structure, Transitivity, and Verbal Number

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
56	The Verb Word and Its Position-Class Template What is the internal architecture of the Ainu verb word, and how are its prefix, stem, and suffix positions ordered?	7	75	5	22	117	53
57	Transitivity, Valence Classes, and Ambitransitivity How are verbs classified by the number and type of core arguments they license?	8	92	7	29	304	126
58	Verbal Number: Suppletive Stems and the Pluractional -pa How does the language mark number on verbs, and what is the distinction between participant number and event number?	5	54	11	24	408	288
59	Light Verbs, Pro-Verbs, and the Auxiliary-Verb Construction How are light verbs, pro-verbs, and auxiliary verbs used to build complex predicates?	8	74	9	17	221	123
60	Denominal and Deverbal Verb Derivation How does Hokkaido Ainu derive verbs from nouns and from other verbs without changing valency?	9	96	5	18	156	95
61	The Adverbializer -no and Adverb Formation from Verbs How does the language form manner and degree adverbs from verbs?	3	30	5	8	43	30

Part X — The Personal-Affix System and Alignment

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
62	Architecture of the Personal-Affix System: The Four Persons and the S/A/O Paradigms How does the language organize its personal affix system for persons and argument roles?	6	62	8	31	290	126
63	First- and Second-Person Singular Affixes (ku=/en=, e=/e=) What are the first- and second-person singular verbal affixes in Hokkaido Ainu, and how do they distinguish or merge subject and object roles?	4	44	9	25	113	60
64	First-Person Plural and the Clusivity Question (ci=/=as, un=) How does the language distinguish exclusive from inclusive first-person plural reference?	5	44	5	28	148	67
65	The eci= Portmanteau (1A→2O) and Second-Person Plural Syncretism What prefix encodes a first-person subject acting on a second-person object, and how is it syncretic with the second-person plural marker?	7	46	5	19	77	38
66	Object Indexing: Monotransitive and Ditransitive Clauses How do transitive and ditransitive verbs index their objects, including subject/object asymmetries and ditransitive alignment?	6	38	7	17	108	20
67	The Indefinite/Fourth Person: Forms, Reference, and Agent-Defocusing How does Hokkaido Ainu express the indefinite/fourth person, and what referential and agent-defocusing functions does it serve?	7	51	12	32	226	128
68	Honorific and Logophoric Uses of the Fourth Person What are the honorific and logophoric uses of the fourth person in Hokkaido Ainu?	5	50	6	22	117	47
69	The Personal-Affix Template: Position Classes and Affix Ordering How are subject and object personal affixes ordered relative to each other, to valency markers, and to the verb stem?	7	62	10	20	98	25
70	Person–Number Interactions and Plural Agreement How do personal affixes and number marking interact in Hokkaido Ainu verbs?	6	55	9	19	35	2
71	The Split-Intransitive (Active–Stative) Core Do intransitive subjects form a single class or multiple classes in person agreement?	7	69	5	27	34	1
72	Tripartite, Nominative-Accusative, and the Central Alignment Debate What alignment patterns do the person indexes on the verb exhibit across different person-number combinations?	7	67	7	19	20	5

Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
73	Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation: Overview What valency-changing operations does the language have, and how do they combine and order on the verb?	6	70	10	25	88	42
74	The Morphological Causative -re / -e / -te What suffix or suffixes does Hokkaido Ainu use to derive a causative verb, and what conditions determine their form?	7	57	5	22	170	53
75	The Transitivizer -ka and Lexical Valency Pairs How does the language form transitive verbs from intransitive bases using suffixes and lexical pairs?	6	50	6	18	52	22
76	Causee Marking, Ditransitive and Double Causatives How does causativization create three-place predicates, what marks the causee, and how are double causatives formed?	6	57	5	15	38	14
77	The Permissive/Sociative Causative -yar How does the language express permissive or sociative causation, and how does this contrast with the productive causative?	7	47	5	14	35	25
78	The Applicative System: Overview and the Preverb-vs-Applicative Debate How does Ainu increase verb valency to promote oblique participants to direct object status?	8	64	5	21	123	66
79	The e- Applicative What types of oblique arguments does the e- applicative promote to object?	5	48	7	17	76	38
80	The ko- Applicative What applicative construction in Hokkaido Ainu promotes goal/recipient, comitative, and adversative obliques to object?	7	51	8	16	65	30
81	The o- Applicative What is the function of the applicative prefix that promotes locative, source, and goal obliques to direct object status?	5	42	5	18	24	14
82	Applicative Stacking, Ordering, and the Feeding of Relativization How do multiple applicative prefixes interact in terms of stacking and ordering, and what operations do they feed?	6	65	9	19	20	7
83	The Antipassive / Detransitive i- What does the prefix i- contribute to a transitive verb, and how does it detransitivize the clause?	7	72	5	20	91	62
84	The Reflexive yay- How does a language express coreference between subject and object on a verb?	5	59	6	17	42	27
85	The Reflexive-Possessive si- and the yay-/si- Division How does the prefix si- function on verbs and in possessives, and how does it contrast with yay-?	5	43	5	15	36	10
86	The Reciprocal u- What functions does the reciprocal prefix u- serve in Hokkaido Ainu?	11	81	9	25	49	39
87	Middle, Anticausative, and the (Non-)Passive Question How does the language encode middle, anticausative, and passive-like meanings?	7	73	8	18	87	47
88	Object (Patient) Noun Incorporation What characterizes object (patient) noun incorporation in Hokkaido Ainu, and how does it interact with the antipassive and valency prefixes?	5	49	5	25	186	120
89	Subject Incorporation and Possessor-Stranding How does Hokkaido Ainu incorporate subjects into verbs, and what are the patterns and restrictions involved?	7	56	6	19	83	45
90	Oblique Incorporation and the Syntactic-vs-Lexicalist Debate How does oblique noun incorporation operate in Hokkaido Ainu, and what is the syntactic-vs-lexicalist debate about it?	6	78	5	15	40	17
91	Adverbial (Manner) Incorporation and the Property-Verb Question How does Hokkaido Ainu express manner by incorporating a verb stem into another verb, and what is the status of that element?	5	40	5	18	25	15

Part XII — The Simple Clause and Nonverbal Predication

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
92	Basic Constituent Order and Head-Final Syntax What is the basic constituent order and head-final syntactic profile?	6	78	6	20	108	57
93	Argument Realization: Affix Indexing and Free NP Order How does the language encode grammatical relations and order of noun phrases?	8	74	5	22	62	18
94	Pro-Drop, (Non)configurationality, and the Pronominal-Argument Debate How does the language handle argument omission and the status of bound affixes versus free noun phrases?	9	114	6	22	27	7
95	Oblique and Adjunct Syntax; Verbless and Presentational Clauses How does Hokkaido Ainu structure oblique phrases and adjuncts, and what verbless or presentational clause types exist?	9	87	13	12	16	4
96	The Copula ne and Predicate-Nominal Clauses How does Hokkaido Ainu form equational and class-membership predication, and what is the grammatical status of the copula ne?	10	84	10	22	89	50
97	Existential and Locational Clauses (an / oka) How does Hokkaido Ainu form existential and locational clauses, including number suppletion and the negative existential isam?	9	48	7	22	34	9
98	Predicative Possession: kor, Existential Possession, and isam How does the language express predicative possession ('X has Y') at the clause level?	8	50	7	12	10	3
99	Property-Concept (Adjectival) Predication without a Copula How do property-concept words function as predicates without a copula?	8	54	7	13	12	2
100	TAM, Evidentiality, and Negation on Nonverbal Predicates How do aspect, evidentiality, and negation attach to nonverbal predicates?	6	50	5	15	2	1

Part XIII — Nominalization, Relativization, and Complementation

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
101	The Nominalizers -p/-pe and -i/-hi (Participant, Event, Place, Fact) How does the language nominalize clauses to refer to participants, events, places, or facts?	5	42	8	23	145	67
102	Lexical-Head and Formal-Noun Nominalization (kur, uske, ruwe/hawe/siri/humi) How does the language form nominalized clauses using a nominal head after a finite verb?	7	73	10	12	30	7
103	Relative Clauses: The Gap Strategy and the Accessibility Hierarchy How are relative clauses formed in Hokkaido Ainu, and which noun phrase positions can be relativized?	15	73	12	17	123	82
104	Headless, Internally-Headed, and Noun-Modifying Clause Analyses What is the syntactic analysis of noun-modifying clauses in Hokkaido Ainu?	6	60	7	12	7	1
105	Quotative Complementation and Reported Speech (sekor) How does Hokkaido Ainu embed direct-form clauses as complements of verbs of speech, cognition, and intention?	6	48	7	12	198	163
106	Nominalized Complements and Control/Raising How does a language form complement clauses and distinguish them from relative clauses, including in control and raising constructions?	10	78	10	16	40	12
107	The kuni Complementizer and Purpose Complements How does the language form purposive complements and irrealis nominalized clauses?	5	52	6	10	34	12

Part XIV — Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Modality

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
108	Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Modality: Overview How do tense, aspect, mood, and modality combine in the verbal system, and which categories are expressed optionally?	7	72	12	19	73	18
109	Tenselessness and the Time-Reference System How does a language without grammatical tense express temporal location?	6	48	5	16	55	35
110	The Existential-Aspect System: kor an Progressive and wa an Resultative-Perfect How do existential verbs function as auxiliary verbs to express progressive and resultative aspects?	11	67	10	19	150	120
111	The Perfective/Anterior Particle a (a, a…a, aan) What does the postverbal particle a and its variants a…a and aan express regarding completion and anteriority in Hokkaido Ainu?	10	56	6	16	62	47
112	The 'Appearance' Continuative: siran, siri…, and kane an How does Hokkaido Ainu express durative, ongoing situations framed as observable appearance?	7	52	5	13	38	27
113	Phasal, Iterative, and Habitual Aspect How are phasal, iterative, and habitual aspects expressed?	8	56	10	17	180	85
114	Imperative and Prohibitive (Directive Mood) How does the language form positive and negative directives, and how does it distinguish singular from plural or polite addressees?	7	42	9	16	124	40
115	Hortative, Optative, and Cohortative How does the language express first-person inclusive proposals, wishes, and optative meanings?	5	36	5	8	27	14
116	The Desiderative rusuy How does the language express desire or wanting, and what are the formal properties of that construction?	8	47	5	12	34	19
117	Abilitative easkay / eaykap (Ability and Possibility) How does the language encode ability and inability using a lexical pair of auxiliary verbs?	5	38	7	10	28	13
118	Deontic Necessity and Obligation (kuni ne, kus ne) How does Hokkaido Ainu express deontic necessity and obligation?	6	46	8	11	30	14
119	Epistemic Modality, Dubitative, Intentive, and Irrealis How does Hokkaido Ainu express epistemic probability, dubitative, intentive, and irrealis modalities?	7	62	8	15	86	30

Part XV — Evidentiality and Mirativity

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
120	The Nominalization-plus-Copula Evidential Schema How does Hokkaido Ainu grammatically express the speaker's information source in sentence-final position?	13	99	5	22	124	64
121	ruwe ne — the Inferential / Visual-Trace Evidential What evidential form does Hokkaido Ainu use to indicate inference from visual traces or established facts?	9	88	12	15	78	36
122	siri ne — the Direct-Perception / Situational Evidential How does the language express that a statement is based on a directly perceived or visible situation?	8	73	5	18	43	22
123	hawe ne — the Reportative / Hearsay Evidential How does the language mark information acquired through speech or hearsay?	9	66	5	19	50	29
124	humi ne — the Non-Visual Sensory Evidential How does the language express that a statement is based on non-visual sensory evidence like sound, smell, or feeling?	8	74	7	17	32	22
125	Mirativity, Evidential Scope, and Grammaticalization to Sentence-Final Particles How do mirativity, evidential scope, and grammaticalization to clause-final particles interact within a single evidential system?	5	79	7	18	25	7

Part XVI — Negation

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
126	Standard Clausal Negation with somo How does standard clausal negation operate in Hokkaido Ainu?	7	61	10	15	88	58
127	Negative Existential and Possessive: isam How does Hokkaido Ainu express negative existence and possession? Describe the forms and their functions.	5	49	5	13	24	7
128	Negative Predicates of Ability and Cognition How does the language express negation of ability and cognition predicates?	7	62	11	12	25	7
129	Negative-Polarity Indefinites and the Scope of Negation How does the language form negative-polarity indefinites, and what determines the scope of negation?	6	53	14	13	17	5
130	The Prohibitive Subsystem: iteki and Negative Directives How does the language form negative commands, and how do they relate to other negation and directive forms?	7	44	11	14	33	25

Part XVII — Clause Linkage and Adverbial Subordination

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
131	Clause Linkage in Ainu: Typology and Inventory How does the language link finite clauses, and what morphemes are used?	8	72	10	15	133	81
132	Sequential wa and Clause Chaining How does the language connect clauses to indicate sequential events and what forms are used?	8	52	7	14	88	45
133	The hine/akusu Contrast and Switch-Reference-Like Linkage How do sequential connectives encode temporal order and subject continuity across clauses?	13	95	6	13	37	17
134	Simultaneous kor 'while' and Overlapping-Event Clauses How does the language express temporal overlap between two events?	6	52	7	13	41	16
135	Conditional, Temporal, and Concessive Clauses How does the language mark conditional, temporal, and concessive relationships between clauses?	9	73	7	17	205	150
136	Causal and Purpose Clauses (kusu) How does the language express causal and purposive relations between clauses?	9	73	6	13	52	37
137	Manner and Degree Adverbial Clauses How does the language express manner, simile, and degree in adverbial clauses?	4	38	5	9	68	33
138	Tail-Head Linkage and Narrative Clause Cohesion How does Hokkaido Ainu employ tail-head linkage and discourse connectives to structure oral narratives?	7	69	7	9	0	0

Part XVIII — Information Structure, Sentence-Final Particles, and Minor Classes

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
139	Reference Tracking and Argument Continuity What mechanisms does the language use to track participants across clauses?	10	62	5	16	5	1
140	Topic and Focus Marking: anak(ne), patek, and ka Which particles mark topic and focus in Hokkaido Ainu, and what distinctions do they make between thematic and contrastive topics and restrictive, additive, and scalar focus?	12	67	7	15	172	109
141	Cleft, Pseudocleft, and Nominalization-Based Focus How does the language express identificational and predicate focus using nominalization and the copula?	8	71	7	8	0	0
142	Pragmatic Word-Order Permutation, Dislocation, and Argument Ellipsis How does Hokkaido Ainu adjust word order for information structure, moving phrasess or omitting arguments, while keeping the verb final?	6	65	5	14	14	3
143	The Sentence-Final Particle System and Illocutionary Force How does the language use its sentence-final particle system to encode illocutionary force?	15	88	11	17	182	97
144	Interrogative Strategies, Question Particles, and Evidential Questions How does the language form polar and content questions, and how are evidentiality and speaker/addressee perspective integrated into interrogative structures?	9	75	11	16	129	74
145	Gendered Speech and Pragmatic Registers What sex-of-speaker and register differences exist in final particles, interjections, and politeness, and what documentation gaps remain?	6	51	5	16	52	17
146	Adverbs, Degree Words, and Comparison Strategies How does the language express adverbial modification, degree, and comparison?	7	62	4	15	196	69
147	Conjunctions and Discourse Connectives How does the language coordinate noun phrases and connect clauses in discourse, and how do these forms differ from other clause-linking devices?	8	51	5	13	79	24
148	Interjections, Response Words, Ideophones, and Sound Symbolism How does the language use interjections, response words, ideophones, and sound-symbolic gradation for expressive purposes?	7	55	9	10	74	47

Part XIX — Discourse and the Grammar of Oral Literature

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
149	The Oral-Literature Genre System and Its Grammatical Signatures How does the language distinguish oral narrative genres through grammatical features?	8	106	5	36	241	155
150	First-Person Narration, the Logophoric Fourth Person, and Reported Discourse How does the language mark reported discourse?	9	67	5	21	156	45
151	The Sakehe Refrain, Verse Meter, and the Structure of Sung Verse How do the sakehe refrain and metrical structure organize Hokkaido Ainu sung verse?	10	91	4	15	130	80
152	Parallelism, Couplets, and Word-Pair Doublets How does the language use syntactic-semantic parallelism, verse couplets, and lexical doublets as structural rhetoric rather than mere style?	8	56	6	11	28	13
153	The Elevated/Poetic Register: Archaic Morphology and Formulaic Diction What are the grammatical and lexical features of the elevated register in Hokkaido Ainu?	10	71	4	18	215	76
154	Honorific, Ritual, and Taboo Registers How does the language encode honorific, ritual, and taboo registers in its grammar?	7	58	6	20	70	12
155	Narrative TAM and Evidential Patterning by Genre How do genre and narrative context condition the distribution of tense-aspect and evidential clause-final forms?	9	84	5	22	5	0

Part XX — Diachrony, Reconstruction, and Dialectology

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
156	Proto-Ainu Reconstruction: Segments and Accent Classes What segments and accent classes are reconstructed for Proto-Ainu, and what are the correspondence sets to modern reflexes?	14	97	2	14	52	26
157	The Final-h Problem and Its Sakhalin Vowel-Length Reflex What is the historical relationship between word-final h in Hokkaido Ainu and vowel length in Sakhalin Ainu?	4	64	1	13	20	5
158	Internal Reconstruction and Grammaticalization Pathways How do internal reconstruction and grammaticalization pathways together illuminate the prehistory of Ainu, given its status as a language isolate?	10	87	3	31	158	28
159	Hokkaido Dialect Classification and Dialectometry How are Hokkaido Ainu dialects classified based on geographic variation and statistical analyses?	23	140	3	24	62	28
160	Hokkaido Dialect Microvariation: Phonology and Morphosyntax How do Hokkaido Ainu dialects vary in phonology and morphosyntax, and how are these microvariations distributed geographically?	15	93	2	31	214	29
161	Lexical Dialectology and the Dialect Atlas How does lexical variation across Hokkaido Ainu dialects compare, and what datasets document it?	11	101	2	17	87	22
162	Sakhalin and Kuril Ainu: The External Comparison How do the three Ainu varieties—Hokkaido, Sakhalin, and Kuril—differ and relate to each other?	11	70	2	29	287	74

Part XXI — Language Contact and the Lexicon

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
163	Japanese Loanwords and Their Phonological Adaptation How does Hokkaido Ainu phonologically adapt Japanese loanwords and what are the borrowing strata?	8	72	4	23	30	25
164	Ainu Loanwords and Toponymy in Japanese How has the Ainu language influenced Japanese vocabulary and place names?	10	73	3	15	69	63
165	Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu What lexical and structural influences did Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu have on Ainu in the Sakhalin/Amur contact zone?	6	66	2	16	41	29
166	Macro-Comparison and Deep-Contact Controversies What are the proposed external genetic relationships and deep-contact scenarios for Ainu, and how are they evaluated?	8	90	1	9	6	2
167	Synopsis of Lexical-Semantic Fields How is the Ainu lexicon organized into semantic fields, and how do these fields interact with grammar and culture?	11	86	5	24	66	40

Part XXII — Glossed Texts

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources	Statements	Claims
168	A Glossed Uwepeker (Prose Folktale) What are the defining linguistic features of a prose folktale narrative, including person marking and speech framing?	6	70	5	14	8	0
169	Glossed Verse: A Yukar Heroic Epic and a Kamuy Yukar God-Song What are the distinctive features of Hokkaido Ainu heroic epics and divine epics in narration, meter, and refrain?	15	98	5	18	17	1
170	A Glossed Inonno-itak (Ritual Prayer) What linguistic features characterize Ainu ritual prayers?	11	74	5	9	5	0
171	A Glossed Everyday-Conversation Text What syntactic structures and discourse markers characterize spontaneous Hokkaido Ainu conversation?	5	32	7	3	0	0
172	A Glossed Sakhalin (Enciw) Text with Hokkaido Contrast How does Sakhalin Ainu contrast with Hokkaido Ainu in phonemic vowel length, final-h reflex, and person/number/negation morphology?	7	43	5	9	0	0

Part XXIII — Reference Apparatus (Back Matter)

No.	Chapter topic	Sections	Sentences	Examples	Sources
173	Glossary of Grammatical Terms What is the glossary of grammatical terms?	2	4	0	0
174	Abbreviations and Glossing-Symbol Conventions What abbreviations, morpheme-boundary symbols, and notation conventions are used in interlinear glosses, and how are divergent source conventions reconciled?	9	60	1	9
175	Consolidated References and Bibliography How does the grammar organize its list of cited works?	4	614	0	0
176	Index of Subjects How does the grammar's subject index arrange topics and concepts, and what typological features does it include for cross-linguistic comparison?	1	1345	0	0
177	Index of Grammatical Morphemes and Affixes How does the language list and cross-reference all bound morphemes, clitics, and grammatical particles?	1	523	0	0
178	Index of Cited Examples, Source Texts, and Dialects How are the origins and dialect affiliations of cited examples catalogued?	2	5	0	0

Sources most cited

Source	Title	Chapters	Citations	Statements	Claims
Nakagawa 2024	アイヌ語広文典	171	7100	1791	1768
Refsing 1986	The Ainu language: The morphology and syntax of the Shizunai dialect	156	4515	1608	1286
Satō 2008	アイヌ語文法の基礎	162	3480	1114	1081
Kindaichi & Chiri 1936	アイヌ語法概説	133	1712	610	601
Shibatani 1990	The languages of Japan	137	1205	382	372
Murasaki 2025	エンチウ（樺太アイヌ）語会話入門【改訂版】	106	1149	437	363
Bugaeva 2012	Southern Hokkaido Ainu	131	865	260	259
Bugaeva 2008	Reported discourse and logophoricity in Southern Hokkaido dialects of Ainu	58	597	175	175
Bugaeva 2022	Handbook of the Ainu language	102	474	129	128
aynu-corpora Discord 2023–2026	Community linguistic discussion (aynu-corpora Discord archive)	123	445	0	0
Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022	Verbal valency	37	338	84	77
Itabashi 2001	樺太アイヌ語の母音の長短と北海道アイヌ語のピッチアクセントとの史的関係	21	321	102	98
Shiraishi 2022	Phonetics and phonology	26	317	65	65
Nakagawa 2022	Parts of speech — with a focus on the classification of nouns	42	311	80	80
Nakagawa & Fukazawa 2022	Hokkaido Ainu dialects: Towards a classification of Ainu dialects	46	311	73	73
Tangiku 2022	Differences between Karafuto and Hokkaido Ainu dialects	49	294	90	90
Bugaeva 2014	アイヌ語使役構文に関する再考察	40	281	82	73
Endō 2022	Ainu oral literature	21	268	38	38
Tamura 1972	沙流方言の人称の種類	36	262	75	75
Satō 2023	アイヌ語の動詞の結合価と3項動詞	34	258	66	64
Hirosawa 2026	アイヌ語における証拠性表現の用法について：ruwe neの用法を中心に	18	251	71	69
Bugaeva, Nichols & Bickel 2022	Appositive possession in Ainu and around the Pacific	33	245	64	63
Bugaeva 2015	An equivalent of the standard of comparison relativization in Ainu	39	240	72	68
Bugaeva 2016	On the innovative nature of Sakhalin Ainu, focusing on nominalization	54	236	69	69
Ijäs 2023	Aynu itak a-eyaypakasnu ro — Let’s learn Ainu: Ainu language grammar guide	102	229	0	0
Nakagawa 2022	Verbal number	29	220	85	84
Vovin 2022	Ainu elements in early Japonic	37	219	79	79
Alonso de la Fuente 2022	The Ainu language through time	28	201	35	35
Satō 2022	Noun incorporation in Ainu	20	190	56	55
Yoshikawa 2022	Existential aspectual forms in the Saru and Chitose dialects of Ainu	21	165	50	50
Satō 2025	Basic Sentence Structures in Ainu	27	154	35	35
Takahashi 2022	Aspect and evidentiality	27	146	45	45
ILCAA Ainu materials 1976	AA研アイヌ語資料	75	143	0	0
Dal Corso 2018	Ainu evidentiality: A semantico-pragmatic analysis and a morphosyntactic account	22	140	0	0
Bugaeva 2006	Applicatives in Ainu	31	139	34	31
Janhunen 2022	Ainu ethnic origins	16	138	29	27
Tamura 1996	アイヌ語沙流方言辞典	48	102	0	0
Ōno 2022	The history and current status of the Ainu language revival movement	25	100	26	25
Nam 2021	Some evidence for the origin of the Ainu antipassive prefix i-	24	95	27	27
Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022	Language contact in the north	10	95	31	31

Build of 2026-09-27, first edition at revision f015a1ca87. Records live in kb/; the design is described in docs/knowledge-base/PLAN.md.