36. Verbal Subclasses: A Valence-Based Word-Class Taxonomy

A valence-based taxonomy 6 claims ·9 sentences

What formal evidence supports dividing verbs into valence-based subclasses in the language?

1. Ainu verbs are classified into four major classes: complete verbs, intransitive verbs, transitive verbs, and the copula.
   アイヌ語の動詞は、完全動詞、自動詞、他動詞、コピュラの4種に大別される。
   membership ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2024, refsing1986, sato2008
   • nakagawa2024:117 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts anchored
   • sato2008:21 asserts checked
2. Transitive and intransitive verbs in Ainu are distinguished both syntactically and morphologically.
   アイヌ語において他動詞と自動詞は統語的にも形態的にも区別される。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts bugaeva2006, bugaeva2008
   • bugaeva2006:185 asserts checked
   • bugaeva2008 asserts checked
3. In Ainu, there is no clear grammatical distinction between states and processes, and most verbs combine both meanings.
   アイヌ語には状態と過程との明確な文法的区別がなく、殆どの動詞がその両方を兼ねている。
   absence ainu usually
   asserts bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 asserts checked
4. Verbs are classified into plain verbs (classified by number of objects), existential verbs (expressing 'exist'), and designator verbs (copula).
   動詞は、目的語の数にかかわる「ただの動詞」、存在を表す「存在詞」、いわゆるコピュラである「指定詞」に区別される。
   terminology sakhalin all
   asserts murasaki2025
   • murasaki2025:90 asserts checked
5. Verbs in Ainu can be classified from 0-argument to 4-argument verbs according to the number of noun phrases they require.
   アイヌ語の動詞は必要とする名詞句の数によって0項動詞から4項動詞までに区分することができる。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:117 asserts checked
6. Basic verbs have positive arities of +1 for one-argument verbs, +2 for two-argument verbs, and +3 for three-argument verbs.
   動詞が項として名詞句をとる能力をプラスで示すと、基本形動詞のアリティは1項動詞が+1、2項動詞が+2、3項動詞が+3となる。
   form-function hokkaido all
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:137 asserts anchored

The person-marking diagnostic 6 claims ·13 sentences

How does personal affixation reveal which argument roles a verb takes?

1. Intransitive and transitive verbs employ different person indexing for S and A in the first-person plural and the indefinite person.
   自動詞と他動詞は、1人称複数および不定人称においてSとA（およびO）に異なる人称標示を用いる。
   paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest generic
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:474–475 asserts checked
2. Ainu verbs are divided into three types according to their conjugation patterns.
   アイヌ語の動詞はその活用の型によって3つの種類に分けられる。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
3. Class I verbs are those that prefix the Classical first-person subjective affix (a-- type), and verbs requiring an object or complement (transitive verbs and incomplete intransitive verbs) belong to this class.
   第I類は雅語第I人称主格接辞が接頭するもの（a——型）であり、目的語ないし補語を要求する動詞（他動詞および不完全自動詞）がこれに属する。
   membership ainu all a-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts extracted
4. Class II verbs are those that suffix the Classical first-person subjective affix (--an type), and verbs not requiring an object or complement (complete intransitive verbs) belong to this class.
   第II類は雅語第I人称主格接辞が接尾するもの（――an 型）であり、目的語ないし補語を要求しない動詞（完全自動詞）がこれに属する。
   membership ainu all -an
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
5. Class III verbs are those in which the Classical first-person subjective affix infixes (--a-- type), and certain compound verbs belong to this class.
   第III類は雅語第I人称主格接辞が接中するもの（――a――型）であり、合成動詞のあるものがこれに属する。
   membership ainu generic -a-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
6. When combined with a nominative pronominal affix that has an alternation between suffixed and prefixed forms (1st person plural and indefinite person), an intransitive verb always takes the suffixed form.
   接尾形態と接頭形態の選択肢をもつ主格代名接辞（1人称複数および不定人称）と結合する場合、自動詞は常に接尾形態をとる。
   ordering hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:140 asserts checked

Intransitive verbs 9 claims ·11 sentences· 2 examples

How does the language handle verbs with a single argument, and what semantic types are included?

1. Intransitive verbs cannot combine with objective pronominal affixes or take any object.
   自動詞は目的語代名接辞と結合することも、いかなる目的語をとることもできない。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:77 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:140 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:140 asserts checked
2. Class II verbs whose stem does not change between singular and plural are classified as division i (第 i 種).
   第II類動詞のうち、単複を通じて語幹の変わらないものを第 i 種とする。
   terminology hokkaido all
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
3. Verbs such as ak 'shoot an arrow', arka 'hurt', isu 'live', ipe 'eat', kira 'flee', rai 'die', and hotke 'sleep' belong to Class II division i.
   ak「矢を射る」、arka「痛む」、isu「生きる」、ipe「食事する」、kira「逃げる」、rai「死ぬ」、hotke「寝る」などの動詞は第II類第 i 種に属する。
   membership hokkaido example_only akarkaisuipekirarai
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts anchored
4. Class II division ii verbs are those that have different stems for singular and plural, where the plural stem is formed by removing the final vowel of the singular stem and adding -pa.
   第II類動詞のうち、単複により語幹を異にし、複数語幹は単数語幹の末尾の母音を除いて -pa を付するものを第 ii 種とする。
   terminology hokkaido all -pa
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
5. In Class II division ii verbs, the plural stem (e.g. hoshippa) is used in all plural forms as well as in the second person and third person honorific singular forms (hoshippa-an, hoshippa).
   第II類第 ii 種動詞において、複数語幹（例：hoshippa）はすべての複数形だけでなく、第II人称および第III人称の敬称単数形（hoshippa-an, hoshippa）にも用いられる。
   paradigm-cell hokkaido all hoshippahoshippa-an
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
6. All verbs belonging to Class II division ii are compound verbs whose root is a transitive verb of the type listed in § 121 (1).
   第II類第 ii 種に属する動詞はすべて § 121 (1) に列挙した類の他動詞を根詞とする複合の動詞である。
   membership hokkaido all
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
7. The verb siknu 'be alive' can also mean 'come back to life' (become alive).
   動詞 siknu「生きている」は生きていない状態から生きている状態になること、すなわち「生き返る」という意味にもなる。
   form-function ainu all siknu
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:120 asserts extracted
8. In Ainu, the single argument of a one-argument verb is a grammatical subject and is not necessarily a semantic agent, sometimes representing an undergoer.
   アイヌ語の1項動詞の主語はあくまで文法的なものであり、意味的な動作主とは限らず、動作の対象物である場合もある。
   form-function ainu generic
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:129 asserts checked
9. Stative verbs in Ainu can express static states by themselves, but they can also convey inchoative change of state ('become [that state]') and can take personal affixes.
   アイヌ語の状態動詞は単独で静態的な状態を表すことができるだけでなく、状態変化（「その状態になる」）の意味も持ち、人称接辞を取ることができる。
   form-function ainu all
   asserts yoshikawa2022
   • yoshikawa2022:19.2 asserts checked

Transitive verbs 2 claims ·7 sentences· 1 examples

How are transitive verbs with two arguments marked, especially when both are non-third-person?

1. Transitive verbs can combine with pronominal affixes in both the nominative and the objective cases, and can take noun expressions as objects.
   他動詞は主格および目的格の代名接辞の双方と結合でき、名詞表現を目的語にとることもできる。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:77 asserts checked
2. Transitive verbs include two-place verbs that take a single object as well as three-place verbs that take both an indirect object and a direct object.
   他動詞には，目的語を一つだけ取るもの（二項動詞）と，間接目的語と直接目的語の二つを取るもの（三項動詞）がある。
   membership ainu all
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:21 asserts checked

Three-place verbs 4 claims ·8 sentences· 1 examples

How are verbs with three arguments, such as give or tell, formed and inflected?

1. As far as currently known, the locative object verb o ('to put X into Y') is the only underived basic stem that functions as a three-argument verb.
   基本形で3項動詞のものは、今のところ場所目的語動詞の o（〜が〜を〜〈場所〉に入れる）しか知られていない。
   membership ainu all o
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:134 asserts checked
2. In principle, four-argument verbs can be formed by adding a causative suffix to a three-argument verb, though actual attested examples are extremely rare.
   3項動詞に使役接尾辞を付加する形で4項動詞を作り出すことは原理的には可能であるが、実例は極めて少ない。
   existence hokkaido exists omarere-re
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:135 asserts extracted
3. In their basic forms, verbs range from one-argument to three-argument verbs; o 'to put into a place' is the only basic three-argument verb, and almost all other basic verbs are either one-argument or two-argument.
   動詞の基本形においては1項動詞から3項動詞までが認められるが、基本形で3項動詞であるのは o「〜を〜〈場所〉に入れる」1例のみであり、他のほとんどすべての動詞は1項動詞か2項動詞に分類される。
   distribution hokkaido all o
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:136 asserts checked
4. The causative verb ta-re 'X causes Y to draw Z (water)' is a three-argument verb.
   使役動詞 ta-re「X が Y に Z を汲ませる」は3項動詞である。
   membership ainu all ta-re
   asserts sato2023b
   • sato2023b asserts checked

The copula and the existential verbs 19 sentences· 1 examples

What special properties do copula, existential, and negative existential verbs have?

Avalent predicates 20 claims ·5 sentences

Are there predicates that take no arguments, and how are they formally identified?

1. Zero-argument (complete) verbs consist of meteorological predicates that commonly contain an incorporated subject sir 'appearance/land' and cannot take any external or dummy subject.
   無項（完全）動詞は気象述語からなり、通常は抱合主語 sir「様子/大地」を含んでおり、外的な主語や形式主語を取ることもできない。
   form-function ainu generic sir-pirkasir
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:470–471 asserts anchored
2. Verbs taking zero noun phrase arguments, such as 'onuuman 'the day grows dark', form a distinct valence class of complete verbs (v0).
   名詞句をとらない 'onuuman「日が暮れる」のような動詞は、完全動詞（v0）という下位クラスを形成する。
   membership sakhalin example_only 'onuuman
   asserts murasaki2025
   • murasaki2025 asserts checked
3. Many zero-argument verbs are formed by prefixing sir- ('around, appearance') to a one-argument verb.
   多くの0項動詞は、1項動詞にsir-（「あたり、様子」）が接頭した形をとる。
   distribution ainu usually sir-
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:129 asserts checked
4. In the Saru dialect, temperature verbs form pairs of zero-argument and one-argument verbs, where zero-argument verbs express weather or climate temperature, while one-argument verbs express the subjective sensation felt by an experiencer.
   沙流方言において寒暖を表す動詞は0項動詞と1項動詞のペアを作り、0項動詞が気候や気温を表すのに対し、1項動詞はその事態を経験している主体の感覚を表現する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru all meanmeraykesirmemanmemansirpopkepopke
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:130 asserts checked
5. The zero-argument verb hawas ('there is word/sound that...') takes no subject and is used when the speaker is unspecified, whereas the one-argument verb hawean ('to say') requires an overt or specified subject.
   0項動詞 hawas は主語をとらず話者が特定されない場合に用いられるのに対し、1項動詞 hawean は主語を要求する。
   form-function ainu generic hawashawean
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:131 asserts extracted
6. Refsing (1986) classifies forms such as sirsesek, aptoas, asuras, and mean as 0-place 'Closed Verbs', whereas Tamura's Saru dialect dictionary treats apto as and asur as as two words (subject + 1-place verb).
   レフシン (1986) は sirsesek のほかに aptoas、asuras、mean を0項動詞（閉じた動詞）としているが、沙流方言辞典では apto as、asur as は主語＋1項動詞の2語と見なしている。
   analysis hokkaido/southwest/saru sirsesekaptoasasurasmeanapto asasur as
   reports nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:493 reports checked
7. In Tamura's Saru dialect dictionary, of the 68 verbs classified as 0-place verbs, 56 begin with sir-, two with me-, two with haw-, two with hum-, and six with other elements.
   田村の沙流方言辞典で0項動詞とされている68語のうち、56語が sir で始まり、me で始まるものが2語、haw と hum で始まる語が各2語で、残りは6語である。
   frequency hokkaido/southwest/saru measured sirmehawhum
   reports nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:493 reports checked
8. Because 0-place verbs by definition take no personal affixes, there is no morphological criterion based on affix placement to determine their word boundary.
   0項動詞には定義上人称接辞がつかないので、どこまでが一語なのかを判定する基準が立てられない。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:493 asserts checked
9. The element me in mean 'be cold' is an unautonomous nominal root and cannot form an independent noun phrase separated from an by adverbial particles (*me anak an, *me ka an).
   mean の me は自立性が極めて低い名詞語根であり、副助詞 anakne や ka で me と an を分断して単独で名詞句を作ることはできない（*me anak an、*me ka an）。
   judgement ainu memean*me anak an*me ka an
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:494 asserts checked
10. The element sir cannot be separated from the predicate by the adverbial particles anak or ka (*sir anak pirka, *sir ka pirka).
    sir を副助詞 anak や ka で動詞から分断することはできない（*sir anak pirka、*sir ka pirka）。
    judgement ainu sir*sir anak pirka*sir ka pirka
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:494 asserts checked
11. Because apto can occur as an independent noun separated by particles (e.g. apto ka isam), there is no ground to treat apto as as a single 0-place verb rather than a two-word clause.
    apto は apto ka isam「雨も降っていない」のように自立した名詞として助詞を挟んで使えるため、apto as を0項動詞の一語とみなす根拠はない。
    analysis ainu aptoapto as
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:494 asserts checked
12. Closed verbs are a small group of verbs that for semantic reasons never combine with pronominal affixes, never take any other subject or object, and do not accept verb prefixes or suffixes.
    閉鎖動詞は意味的理由から代名接辞と結合せず、他の主語や目的語もとらず、動詞接頭辞や接尾辞の付加も受けない少数の動詞群である。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:77 asserts checked
13. Verbs that never combine with a pronominal affix form a distinct subgroup called closed or non-affixing verbs.
    代名接辞と決して結合しない動詞は、「閉鎖動詞」または「無接辞動詞」と呼ばれる独自のグループを形成する。
    terminology hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:140 asserts checked
14. Closed verbs do not combine with verb prefixes or suffixes either, and appear only with some of the auxiliaries.
    閉鎖動詞は動詞接頭辞や接尾辞とも結合せず、一部の助動詞とのみ生起する。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:140 asserts checked
15. Closed verbs are characteristically terms for natural phenomena or for acts with no specific agent, but a few stative verbs also belong to this group.
    閉鎖動詞は特徴的に自然現象や特定の動作主をもたない行為を表す語であるが、少数の状態動詞もこれに属する。
    membership hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:140 asserts checked
16. Closed verbs have an incorporated subject, so that they never appear with any independent subject either.
    閉鎖動詞は主語を抱合しているため、独立した主語とも決して生起しない。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:140 asserts checked
17. Closed or non-affixing verbs never combine with pronominal affixes, verbal prefixes, or verbal suffixes, and they only appear with some auxiliaries.
    閉鎖動詞（無接辞動詞）は人称接辞や動詞接頭辞・接尾辞と決して結合せず、一部の助動詞を伴って現れるにすぎない。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:140 asserts checked
18. Closed verbs have an incorporated subject, never appear with any independent subject, and do not distinguish singular and plural forms.
    閉鎖動詞は抱合された主語をもち、独立した主語を伴って現れることは決してなく、単数形と複数形の区別ももたない。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:140 asserts checked
19. Zero-argument verbs (complete verbs) take neither a subject nor an object and do not undergo person inflection.
    完全動詞（ゼロ項動詞）は主語も目的語も取らず、人称変化を行わない。
    form-function ainu all
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:3 asserts checked
20. There exists an atransitive (zero-place) verb type in Ainu.
    アイヌ語には無項動詞（atransitive）という動詞のタイプが存在する。
    existence ainu exists
    asserts sato2025a
    • sato2025a asserts anchored

Locative-object verbs and ambitransitives 4 claims ·8 sentences

How are locative-object verbs marked, and what defines an ambitransitive verb?

1. Because kohemesu ('to climb [onto/up]') is a two-argument verb whose climbed location is a direct object, a case particle such as ta cannot mark that location.
   2項動詞 kohemesu（〜に登る）では登る場所が目的語となるため、ta のような格助詞を用いることはできない。
   distribution ainu generic kohemesuta
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:132 asserts checked
2. The form o exhibits three homophonous verbs: a two-argument locative object verb serving as the plural of oma ('be in / enter [a place]'), a two-argument non-locative object verb meaning 'to ride', and a three-argument locative object verb meaning 'to put X into [a place]'.
   o には、oma の複数形である2項の場所目的語動詞（〜〈場所〉にある・入る）、2項の非場所目的語動詞（〜に乗る）、および3項の場所目的語動詞（〜を〜〈場所〉に入れる）という3種類の同音異義語が存在する。
   membership ainu all ooma
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:134 asserts checked
3. Locative object verbs are defined as a small set of verbs that take a grammatically locative argument as their direct object.
   文法的な〈場所〉を目的語としてとる少数の動詞があり、これを場所目的語動詞と呼ぶ。
   terminology hokkaido generic
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:212 asserts checked
4. In traditional Ainu linguistics, combinations where an object and verb appear separately but in a fixed, idiomatically combined phrase with no intervening elements are called 'third group verbs' (e.g., i-par a-oyki 'people support me').
   アイヌ語学において、目的語と動詞が別個に位置しながら要素の挿入が不可能で慣用的な意味を持つ組み合わせは、通常「第3類動詞」と呼ばれる（例：i-par a-oyki「人々が私を扶養する」）。
   terminology ainu generic i-par a-oyki
   asserts satoni2022
   • satoni2022:16.4 asserts checked