37. The 'No Adjective Class' Thesis: Property Concepts as Stative Verbs

Overview 4 claims ·7 sentences

What grammatical class do property words belong to in Hokkaido Ainu?

1. Ainu lacks an independent word class of adjectives, and concepts corresponding to adjectives are classified as intransitive verbs.
   アイヌ語には独立した形容詞という品詞は存在せず、形容詞に相当する概念は自動詞として分類される。
   absence ainu all
   asserts bugaeva2012, bugaeva2015, murasaki2025, nakagawa2024, refsing1986, sato2008
   • bugaeva2012:470–471 asserts checked
   • bugaeva2015:43 asserts checked
   • murasaki2025:90 asserts checked
   • nakagawa2024:117 asserts checked
   • nakagawa2024:124 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • sato2008:2 asserts checked
2. Ainu lacks an independent adjective word class; concepts corresponding to adjectives are expressed by intransitive verbs.
   アイヌ語には独立した形容詞という品詞がなく、形容詞に相当する概念は自動詞によって表される。
   absence hokkaido/southwest all
   asserts bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 asserts checked
3. Adjectives have an attributive use and a predicative use.
   形容詞には附加語的用法と述語的用法とがある。
   existence ainu generic
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
4. Forms corresponding semantically to adjectives in other languages are treated as a subset of intransitive verbs, and 'adjectives' are not recognized as a separate word class.
   他言語の形容詞に意味的に対応する形式は自動詞の一部として扱われ、「形容詞」は独立した品詞として立てられない。
   analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:77 asserts checked

The standard analysis: three lines of evidence 9 claims ·1 sentences

What three lines of evidence support classifying property words as verbs?

1. Adjectives lack an imperative form, which functions as the only morphological and functional distinction separating them from verbs.
   形容詞には命令形が存在せず、この点が動詞と形容詞を分ける唯一の形態的・機能的相違点である。
   absence ainu all
   asserts kindaichi1936reports refsing1986
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 reports checked
   • contrasts(differs in framework): Stative property verbs in Ainu inherently express both a state and an inchoative change into that state without morphological derivation.— The traditional claim that adjectives categorically lack imperatives contrasts with the stative-inchoative analysis, under which property verbs can form imperatives in their inchoative reading.
2. Ainu lacks a separate word class of adjectives, and property concepts such as pirka 'good' and pon 'small' are intransitive relative clause predicates.
   アイヌ語には独立した形容詞品詞クラスが存在せず、pirka「良い」や pon「小さい」などの属性概念は自動詞の関係節述語である。
   membership ainu all pirkapon
   asserts bugaeva2021poss
   • bugaeva2021poss asserts checked
3. Words with adjective-like meanings are placed directly in predicate position without a copula.
   形容詞的な意味を持つ語は、コピュラを伴わずにそのまま述語の位置に置かれる。
   distribution ainu all pon
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.2 asserts checked
4. Words with adjective-like meanings modify nouns by preceding them with no morphological change, identically to verbs.
   形容詞的な意味を持つ語は、動詞と同様に形態的変化を伴わずに名詞の前に置かれて修飾する。
   distribution ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.2 asserts checked
5. Recognizing an independent adjective class in Ainu is inappropriate because property-concept words show only minuscule differences from 1-valence verbs.
   属性概念を表す語は1価動詞との差異がごく僅かであるため、アイヌ語において独立した形容詞品詞を設定することは不適切である。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.2 asserts checked
6. There are no formal or distributional differences between 'adjectives' and intransitive verbs in Ainu, as both can occur in attributive and predicate position without change in form.
   アイヌ語において「形容詞」と自動詞の間には形態的または分布上の違いはなく、いずれも形態変化を伴わずに連体修飾位置および述語位置に現れることができる。
   absence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:140 asserts checked
7. Words traditionally classified as adjectives exhibit no formal or distributional differences from intransitive verbs, and both may occur in attributive and predicate positions without changes in form.
   伝統的に形容詞と分類されてきた語は自動詞と形態的・分布的差異を示さず、両者ともに形態変化なしに連体修飾位置および述語位置に現れることができる。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:140 asserts checked
8. In Ainu grammar, property words such as méan 'be cold' are considered a type of verb, despite corresponding to adjectives in Japanese.
   アイヌ語の文法では、méan「寒い」のような語は日本語の形容詞に相当するものの、動詞の一種と考えられる。
   membership ainu generic méan
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:3 asserts checked
9. Property-concept words corresponding to adjectives function as predicates in the same manner as intransitive verbs, sharing personal affixes and adnominal modification syntax.
   形容詞に相当する意味と機能を持つ語は自動詞とまったく同様に述語として機能し、同じ人称接辞を共有するだけでなく、名詞修飾語としても同一の振る舞いをする。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts shibatani1990
   • shibatani1990:18 asserts checked

Syntactic identity: the person-marking frame 3 claims ·6 sentences· 3 examples

Which person affixes do property words take, and what does this reveal?

1. Property-concept words take the exact same set of subject person-marking affixes as intransitive verbs.
   属性概念を表す語は自動詞とまったく同一の主語人称標識接辞をとる。
   paradigm-cell ainu all ku--ase-es-eci--an
   asserts nakagawa2022pos, nakagawa2024, shibatani1990
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.2 asserts checked
   • nakagawa2024:119 asserts extracted
   • shibatani1990 asserts checked
   • supports: Ainu lacks an independent word class of adjectives, and concepts corresponding to adjectives are classified as intransitive verbs.— The complete identity in subject person-marking between property words and intransitive verbs provides key morphosyntactic evidence against an independent adjective class.
2. When an adjective takes personal affixes in relation to a person, its conjugation completely matches that of Class II verbs.
   形容詞が人格に関係して人称をとる時の活用は動詞の第II類と全く一致する。
   analysis ainu all wen
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
3. All adjectives in Ainu are Class II verbs, so when the prefix e- attaches to an adjective, it shifts to a Class I transitive verb.
   アイヌ語の形容詞はすべて第II類の動詞であり、したがってそれにe-が付加されれば当然第I類の他動詞に転ずる。
   analysis all e-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked

Morphological identity: causative and applicative morphology 4 claims ·4 sentences

Can property words take causative and applicative suffixes like action verbs?

1. Verbal affixes like the causative suffix and the applicative prefix attach equally to words with adjective-like meanings, provided they are semantically compatible.
   使役接尾辞や適用接頭辞のような動詞接辞は、意味的に両立しうる限り、形容詞的な意味を持つ語にも同様に接続する。
   distribution ainu all -re-kae-yay-
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.2 asserts checked
2. In Sakhalin Ainu, asserted forms of adjectives are formed identically to asserted forms of verbs using the auxiliary ki 'do'.
   樺太アイヌ語において、形容詞の断定形は動詞の断定形と同様に助動詞 ki「する」を用いて形成される。
   form-function sakhalin all ki
   reports refsing1986
   • refsing1986 reports checked
3. In Ainu, asserted forms of property verbs (adjectives) are formed with the auxiliary verb ki 'do', just like verbs.
   アイヌ語において形容詞（状態動詞）の主張形は動詞と同様に補助動詞 ki「する」を用いて形成される。
   form-function ainu all ki
   reports refsing1986
   • refsing1986:27 reports anchored
4. Words traditionally classified as adjectives can undergo causativization or transitivization by the addition of suffixes or prefixes like any other intransitive verb.
   伝統的に形容詞と分類されてきた語は、他の自動詞と同様に、接尾辞や接頭辞の付加によって使役化または他動詞化され得る。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic wenwentepirkapirkareaskayeaskay
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:141 asserts checked

Semantic identity: the stative–inchoative duality 4 claims ·8 sentences· 2 examples

How do property verbs express both a state and entering that state?

1. Stative property verbs in Ainu inherently express both a state and an inchoative change into that state without morphological derivation.
   アイヌ語の状態動詞（性質語）は、形態的派生を伴わずに状態とその状態への起動相的変化の双方を表す。
   form-function ainu all porohurepirka
   asserts nakagawa2024, shibatani1990
   • nakagawa2024:119 asserts checked
   • nakagawa2024:124 asserts checked
   • nakagawa2024:438 asserts checked
   • shibatani1990:18 asserts checked
2. Stative property verbs cannot combine with the copula ne to express inchoative change because inchoative meaning is already inherent in the stem.
   状態動詞（性質語）は語幹自体で状態変化を表すため、変化を表すためにコピュラ ne と共起することはできず非文法的となる。
   judgement ainu all neporohure
   asserts nakagawa2022pos, nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.2 asserts checked
   • nakagawa2024:119 asserts checked
   • supports: Stative property verbs in Ainu inherently express both a state and an inchoative change into that state without morphological derivation.— The ungrammaticality of *X ne demonstrates that the stative stem itself already encodes change of state.
3. The verb 'pirka' is usually translated in a stative sense as 'good', but it can also be used in an inchoative sense as 'become good/recover'.
   pirka は「良い」のように状態の意味に訳されるのが普通であるが，「良くなる」という変化の意味でも用いられる。
   form-function ainu generic pirka
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:20 asserts checked
4. The verb rupne is sometimes used to mean 'to become an adult' or 'to grow old', as in rupne mat 'old woman'.
   rupne は「大人になる，年を取る」という意味で用いられることがある（例：rupne mat「老婦人」）。
   form-function ainu exists rupne
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:359 asserts checked

Diagnostic evidence 7 sentences

What formal tests distinguish property verbs from nouns and adnouns?

The candidate counter-class: adnouns, poro and pon, and the historical analysis 1 claims ·1 sentences

What three phenomena might suggest a residual adjective class?

1. The adjective/verb páse means 'heavy', but it is also used with the meaning of 'noble / great'.
   páse は「重い」という意味であるが、「偉い」という意味でも使われる。
   form-function ainu generic páse
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:309 asserts checked

The adnoun class 4 sentences

How are adnouns defined and what do they include?

poro and pon: verbs with prominent prenominal distribution 1 claims ·5 sentences

Why are 'poro' and 'pon' considered verbs despite frequent prenominal use?

1. poro means 'large/big', but in certain contexts it can express the meaning 'adult, full-fledged, grown-up'.
   poro は「大きい」という意味であるが、場合によっては「大人の、一人前の、成長した」という意味を表すことがある。
   form-function generic poro
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:352 asserts checked

Kindaichi's adjective class and its rejection 10 sentences

How did Kindaichi's adjective class relate to the current verbal analysis?

Comparison and degree 3 claims ·5 sentences

How are comparison and degree expressed without dedicated adjective morphology?

1. The prefixes ar- and si- are used with stative verbs to intensify their meaning.
   接頭辞 ar- および si- は状態動詞とともに用いられ、その意味を強意する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ar-si-
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
2. The prefix ru- is used with stative verbs to indicate a slight degree (e.g., sesek 'be warm' > rusesek 'be lukewarm').
   接頭辞 ru- は状態動詞とともに用いられ、わずかな度合いを示す（例：sesek「温かい」> rusesek「ぬるい」）。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ru-sesekrusesek
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
3. The stative verb rupne means 'big', but seems to carry the relative nuance of 'big among the same kind'.
   rupne は「大きい」だが、「同種の中で大きい」という相対的な意味合いがあるようである。
   form-function ainu generic rupne
   proposes sato2008
   • sato2008:357 proposes checked

Typological framing 8 sentences

Which typological strategy does Hokkaido Ainu use for property concepts?