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A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Knowledge base · Part IX — The Verb: Structure, Transitivity, and Verbal Number

56. The Verb Word and Its Position-Class Template

What is the internal architecture of the Ainu verb word, and how are its prefix, stem, and suffix positions ordered?

アイヌ語の動詞語はどのような内部構造を持ち、接頭辞・語幹・接尾辞の位置クラスはどのように配列されるのか。

The internal architecture of the Ainu verb word as an ordered sequence of prefix, stem, and suffix position classes.

candidate topic from the first edition topic:verb/verb-word-template read this topic as text

53claims
117statements
22sources
5examples
7sections
75first-edition sentences

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Forms mentioned

pa 4=an 3poro 2-pa 2ruska 2i-ruska 2a= 2inkar 2nukar 2mean 2me- 2an 2poronno 2hure 1inkar=an 1arki=as 1a=nukar 1ci=nukar 1iki-pa=an 1iki=an pa 1ko-ruska 1yay-ko-ruska 1ki 1easkay 1=as 1ci= 1kore 1numan hekaci cep koyki 1epakasnu 1sirpirka 1sir- 1apto as 1apto 1merayke 1ne 1okkayo ku=ne 1ko- 1-re 1o 1i- 1

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A claim is one proposition; under it stand the statements of each source, with the stance that source takes. Claims are grouped by a model from the extracted statements and carry that status until reviewed.

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The verb word as the head of its clause 9 claims ·11 sentences

How does the Ainu verb word function as the head of its clause, and what role do its bound indexes play in tracking participants?

  1. No prefix can precede a person-affix prefix and no suffix can follow a person-affix suffix, making person affixes diagnostic of the verb word boundary.
    人称接頭辞の前に接頭辞が現れず人称接尾辞の後に接尾辞が現れることはないため、人称接辞は動詞の語境界を判定する指標となる。
    ordering ainu all
    asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
  2. Verbal morphology in Hokkaido Ainu shows no distinction between finite and non-finite forms, with all verbs exhibiting finite morphology.
    北海道アイヌ語の動詞形態論には定形と非定形の区別がなく、すべての動詞が定形の形態論を示す。
    absence hokkaido all
    asserts bugaeva2016
  3. The verb phrase can occur in six structural configurations: verb stem alone, verb + derivational affix, verb + personal affix, verb + auxiliary verb, VP + sentence-final particle, or coordinated VPs linked by a conjunctive particle.
    動詞部（VP）の構造には、(1) 動詞語幹だけ、(2) v + 派生接辞、(3) v + 人称接辞、(4) v + 助動詞、(5) VP + 終助詞、(6) VP1 + 接続助詞 + VP2、の6つのタイプがある。
    analysis sakhalin all
    asserts murasaki2025
  4. Ainu verbs themselves do not distinguish continuative (ren'yōkei) and terminal/finite (shūshikei) forms, so the verb form itself does not indicate whether a clause has ended or continues.
    日本語と違って、アイヌ語の動詞自体には連用形とか終止形とかいった区別が無いため、そこで文が終わっているのか後に続くのかは動詞の形からはわからない。
    absence ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  5. In a verb phrase, only the main verb takes a subject personal affix, and the main verb always occupies the initial position within the verb phrase.
    ひとつの動詞句の中では基本的に主動詞だけに主格人称接辞がつき、主動詞は動詞句内で必ず先頭の位置にある。
    ordering ainu generic
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. A verb phrase has the basic structure: [[Verb] { ([Auxiliary verb]) / ([Secondary particle]) ([Transitive verb used as auxiliary]) } ([Adverbial element] [Formal verb])].
    動詞句は基本的に [[動詞] { ([助動詞]) / ([副助詞]) ([助動詞的他動詞]) } ([副詞的要素] [形式動詞])] という構造をとる。
    ordering ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  7. There is only one main verb in a single verb phrase, defined as the verb that takes personal affixes.
    1つの動詞句の中には主動詞は1つしかなく、主動詞とは人称接辞をとる動詞であるため、1つの動詞句内では1つの動詞にしか人称接辞がつかない。
    distribution ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  8. A verb may be expanded into a longer verb expression by adding prefixes, suffixes, pronominal affixes, and auxiliaries.
    動詞は接頭辞、接尾辞、代名詞的接辞、および助動詞を付加することによってより長い動詞表現へと拡張されうる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai
    asserts refsing1986
  9. Verb expressions may be expanded by the addition of sentence-final forms or suffixes.
    動詞表現は文末形式または文末接尾辞の付加によってさらに拡張され得る。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic
    asserts refsing1986

A position-class template 29 claims ·12 sentences

What is the position-class template for the finite Ainu verb word, and which categories occupy each position?

  1. Transitive and intransitive verbs may take one or more verb prefixes directly.
    他動詞および自動詞は1つ以上の動詞接頭辞を直接取ることができる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  2. The Saru Ainu verb template contains six affix positions: three prefix slots (applicatives, reciprocal/reflexive/generalized object, applicatives) and three suffix slots (number, transitivity, causative).
    沙流アイヌ語の動詞テンプレートには6つの接辞位置（適用接頭辞、相互・再帰・総称目的語接頭辞、重出適用接頭辞、数接尾辞、自他接尾辞、使役接尾辞）が存在する。
    ordering hokkaido/southwest/saru all e-ko-o-u-yay-si-
    reports bugaeva2012, refsing1986
  3. In the verbal suffix template, the plural/number marker precedes the causative suffix, which in turn precedes the iterative/aspect suffix.
    動詞接尾辞の配列において、数（複数）接尾辞は使役接尾辞に先行し、使役接尾辞は反復（相）接尾辞に先行する。
    ordering ainu all -pa-re
    asserts kindaichi1936, shibatani1990
  4. The plural suffix pa is placed inside derivational affixes, whereas the clitic or auxiliary pa is placed outside derivational affixes like causative -re.
    複数接尾辞 pa は派生接辞の内側に位置するが、接語・助動詞 pa は使役 -re などの派生接辞の外側に置かれる。
    ordering hokkaido/southwest/saru all pa-pa-re
    asserts nakagawa2022, nakagawa2024
  5. Verb prefixes have no general sequential ordering rule in Shizunai, but in combinations containing multiple prefixes the order is fixed and lexicalized.
    静内方言において動詞接頭辞には一般的な生起順序の規則はないが、複数の接頭辞を含む組み合わせでは語順は固定され語彙化されている。
    ordering hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  6. As many as five different prefixes may combine before a single verb stem, though two or three is the typical number.
    1つの動詞の前に最大5つの接頭辞が結合することがあるが、通常は2つまたは3つである。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai exists
    asserts refsing1986
  7. Verb suffixes join the verb closely without pause or interpolation of other elements, forming a single lexical item, whereas auxiliary verbs attach more freely.
    動詞接尾辞は休止や他の要素の挿入を許さず動詞と密接に結合して1つの語彙項目を形成するが、助動詞はより緩やかに付着する。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  8. When a pronominal suffix occurs in an auxiliary construction, it is always placed between the main verb and the auxiliary verb.
    助動詞構文において代名接尾辞が現れる場合、常に本動詞と助動詞の間に置かれる。
    ordering hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  9. In analytic auxiliary constructions formed with a secondary verb, a pronominal affix may be repeated on the secondary verb.
    二次動詞から構成される分析的助動詞形式では、二次動詞にも代名接辞が反復されることがある。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai exists
    asserts refsing1986
  10. Pronominal affixes are ordered outside verb prefixes and suffixes, preceding or following the extended verb expression.
    人称接辞は動詞接頭辞や動詞接尾辞の外側に位置し、拡張された動詞表現の前または後に置かれる。
    ordering hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  11. No single verb in Ainu has been attested that fills all six voice affix slots simultaneously while also incorporating a noun.
    アイヌ語において、6つの態標識スロットすべてと名詞抱合を同時に実現した動詞形は実証されていない。
    absence hokkaido/southwest none
    asserts bugaeva2012
  12. The causative suffix -re/-e/-te can appear in two distinct template slots: transitivizing slot V and indirect causative slot VI.
    使役接尾辞 -re/-e/-te は動詞テンプレート内の2つの異なる位置（他動詞化のスロットVと間接使役のスロットVI）に現れうる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest exists -re-e-te
    proposes bugaeva2014
  13. The iterative suffix occurs at the very end of the verb word, following other suffixes like the causative.
    反復接尾辞は語の最後尾に現れ、使役などの他の接尾辞の後に位置する。
    ordering ainu all -pa
    asserts shibatani1990
  14. Auxiliary pa follows personal affixes, whereas suffix -pa precedes personal affixes.
    助動詞 pa は人称接辞の後ろに位置するが、接尾辞 -pa は人称接辞の前に位置する。
    ordering hokkaido/southwest/saru all pa-pa
    asserts nakagawa2024
  15. The prefixes i-, e-, and ko- may each occur twice in a single prefix cluster before a verb, whereas yay- and u- may occur only once.
    接頭辞 i-、e-、ko- は1つの接頭辞クラスター内でそれぞれ2回現れうるが、yay- と u- は1回しか現れない。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all i-e-ko-yay-u-
    asserts refsing1986
  16. Personal affixes occupy the outermost position of the verb word, such that elements occurring outside them are separate words rather than parts of the verb.
    人称接辞は動詞語の最外郭を占めるため、人称接辞の外側に現れる要素は動詞の一部ではなく別語（助動詞など）とみなされる。
    analysis hokkaido all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  17. Nominal prefixes and applicative prefixes attach before the verb root; their relative linear order depends on the meaning of the derived verb, and multiple prefixes of the same category can co-occur.
    名詞的接頭辞と充当接頭辞は語根の前に接合し、両者の順序は派生動詞の意味により、同じカテゴリーの接辞が2重につくことも可能である。
    ordering hokkaido generic
    asserts nakagawa2024
  18. A verb form like a=e=si-ko-ek-te 'I made you come to me' consists of six elements and forms a complete clause in a single word, but the only free element is the verb root ek and all other elements (a=, e=, si-, ko-, -te) are affixes, illustrating polysynthesis without noun incorporation.
    a=e=si-ko-ek-te「私はお前を私のところに来させた」は6つの要素からなり1語で完結した文をなすが、自立的な要素は動詞語根 ek だけで他の a=, e=, si-, ko-, -te はすべて接辞であり、名詞も動詞も取り込まれておらず抱合は起きていない。
    analysis ainu example_only a=e=si-ko-ek-teeka=e=si-ko-
    asserts nakagawa2024
  19. The verb stem itself does not change its form according to grammatical person; only the pronominal affix changes.
    動詞形態素そのものは文法的な人称に応じて形態を変えず、接辞のみが変化する。
    form-function ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  20. The bound forms combining with verbs are divided into verb prefixes, verb suffixes, verb auxiliaries, and pronominal affixes.
    動詞と結合する各種の結合形式は、動詞接頭辞、動詞接尾辞、動詞助動詞、人称接辞という別個のクラスに分類される。
    terminology ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  21. In the Shizunai dialect, the versatility of verb prefixes is limited and their productivity is restricted, appearing almost totally lexicalized when two or more prefixes are combined.
    静内方言において動詞接頭辞の融通性は限られており、一定程度しか生産的でなく、2つ以上の接頭辞が組み合わさる場合にはほぼ完全に語彙化しているように見受けられる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic
    asserts refsing1986
  22. Most Ainu verbs can take one or more prefixes and suffixes, which may change both the meaning and the grammatical properties of the verb.
    ほとんどのアイヌ語動詞は1つ以上の接頭辞や接尾辞を付加することができ、これらは動詞の意味だけでなく文法特性をも変え得る。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually
    asserts refsing1986
  23. The prefixes o- and si- occur much less frequently than the other verbal prefixes in the Shizunai material.
    静内方言の資料において、接頭辞 o- および si- は他の動詞接頭辞よりもはるかに出現頻度が低い。
    frequency hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic o-si-
    asserts refsing1986
  24. The prefixes i-, e-, and ko- may all appear twice within one cluster of prefixes in front of the same verb.
    接頭辞 i-, e-, ko- はいずれも、同一動詞の前の1つの接頭辞クラスター内で2回現れうる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic i-e-ko-
    asserts refsing1986
  25. The prefixes yay- and u- may only appear once within one cluster of prefixes in front of the same verb.
    接頭辞 yay- および u- は、同一動詞の前の1つの接頭辞クラスター内で1回しか現れることができない。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all yay-u-
    asserts refsing1986
  26. Personal prefixes occur before all other verbal prefixes in the Ainu verb complex.
    アイヌ語の動詞複合体において、人称接頭辞は他のすべての接頭辞に先行して生起する。
    ordering ainu all
    asserts shibatani1990
  27. A subject prefix precedes an object prefix in the prefix sequence of the verb complex.
    動詞複合体の接頭辞連続において、主語接頭辞は目的語接頭辞に先行する。
    ordering ainu all
    asserts shibatani1990
  28. An object prefix does not co-occur with the generalized object prefix, the reflexive prefix, or the reciprocal prefix.
    目的語接頭辞は、一般目的語接頭辞、再帰接頭辞、または相互接頭辞と同起しない。
    distribution ainu none
    asserts shibatani1990
  29. The generalized object prefix, the reflexive prefix, and the reciprocal prefix are mutually exclusive.
    一般目的語接頭辞、再帰接頭辞、相互接頭辞の3つは相互排他的である。
    distribution ainu none
    asserts shibatani1990

Transitivity as the organizing axis 2 claims ·13 sentences· 3 examples

How is transitivity formally determined in the Ainu verb word, and what two diagnostics define it?

  1. The arity of a verb phrase inherits the arity of its main verb.
    動詞句のアリティは、その動詞句の主動詞のアリティを引き継ぐ。
    analysis ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  2. Closed verbs have no possibility of expansion, whereas transitive and intransitive verbs may be built into longer verb expressions through the addition of pronominal affixes, verb prefixes, verb suffixes, and/or verb auxiliaries.
    閉鎖動詞は拡張の余地を持たないが、他動詞および自動詞は代名詞的接辞、動詞接頭辞、動詞接尾辞、および／または補助動詞の付加によって、より長い動詞表現へと構築され得る。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
inkar=an akus e=an ru-we a=nukar hi kusu
look=4.S then 2SG.S=exist track-POSS 4.A=see NMLZ because
‘When I looked, since I saw that you were there, ...’
nakagawa2024:131 SAR Nakagawa ex. 18
topenpe hekattar ku=kore
sweets children 1SG.A=give
‘I gave the children sweets.’
nakagawa2024:127 SAR Nakagawa ex. 11a
numan hekaci cep koyki
yesterday boy fish catch
‘The boy caught fish yesterday.’
ijas2023 constructed

Valence classes and what counts as a verb word 2 claims ·11 sentences· 1 examples

How are Ainu verbs classified by valence, and what do the numeric labels 0- to 3-argument indicate?

  1. In Class III (incorporating) verbs, all subject personal affixes are infixed, whereas only object personal affixes are prefixed.
    第III類の動詞においては主格の人称接辞は全部接中し、目的格の人称接辞のみ接頭する。
    ordering ainu all
    asserts kindaichi1936
  2. In complex predicates, both verbs contained in the predicate can take person affixes.
    複合述語に含まれる2つの動詞は、双方が人称接辞を取ることができる。
    distribution hokkaido
    reports takahashi2022
mean cuk ne pe merayke=an ka somo ki no
be.cold.weather autumn COP NMLZ feel.cold=4.S even NEG do ADV
‘It was a cold autumn, but I did not feel cold.’
nakagawa2024:130 SAR Nakagawa ex. 15, after Kayano 1974a

Valency-changing morphology in the template 1 claims ·6 sentences

Which positions in the Ainu verb template alter argument count, and in what direction does each change it?

  1. Verb suffixes attach to transitive and intransitive verbs and comprise adjunct-neutral suffixes, one adjunct-reducing suffix, and adjunct-increasing suffixes.
    動詞接尾辞は他動詞および自動詞に接続し、副加語中立接尾辞、単一の副加語削減接尾辞、副加語増加接尾辞に細分される。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986

The stem zone and verbal number 3 claims ·8 sentences· 1 examples

How does Ainu express number on verbs rather than nouns, and which verbs have suppletive singular/plural stems?

  1. Except for singular and plural alternations in some verbs, Ainu verbs do not inflect or conjugate.
    一部の動詞における単数・複数の交替を除き、アイヌ語の動詞は語形変化（活用）しない。
    absence ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  2. The plural suffix -pa is classified as a formative suffix, and other formative suffixes never co-occur with -pa.
    複数接尾辞 -pa は形成接尾辞のひとつであり、他の形成接尾辞と -pa が両方同時につくことはない。
    distribution hokkaido all -pa
    asserts nakagawa2024
  3. Ainu verbs never change their form except for singular-plural alternations, making the term conjugation inappropriate.
    アイヌ語の動詞は単数・複数の交替を除いて語形変化しないため、「活用」という用語を適用するのは不適切である。
    analysis ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
ine nispa ek ru-we ne
four rich.man come track-POSS COP
‘Four rich men came.’
nakagawa2024:161 SAR Nakagawa ex. 90

Debates that shape the template 7 claims ·14 sentences

What unresolved analytical questions shape the interpretation of the Ainu verb template?

  1. Auxiliary verbs are defined as postverbal invariable particles that attach to verbs to form new verb phrases.
    助動詞とは、動詞の後に置かれて動詞句を形成する不変化詞として定義される。
    terminology ainu all
    asserts sato2008, nakagawa2024
  2. Ainu verbal structure has a mixed templatic and scopal organization, where the suffixed domain is templatic and the prefixed domain is scopal.
    アイヌ語の動詞構造はスコーパル（作用域的）かつテンプラティック（スロット的）な混合組織を持ち、接尾辞部分はテンプラティックであり、接頭辞部分はスコーパルである。
    analysis ainu all
    reports bugaeva2022
  3. Horobetsu -ci precedes person affixes (forming part of the stem, e.g. iki-ci=as), whereas Shizunai ci follows person affixes (outside the verb, e.g. hotke=an ci), reflecting the difference between suffix and auxiliary verb.
    人称接辞がついた場合、幌別方言では iki-ci=as のように -ci が人称接辞の前に来て語幹の一部となっているのに対し、静内方言では hotke=an ci のように ci が人称接辞の後ろに位置している。
    ordering hokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/southwest/shizunai all -ciciiki-ci=ashotke=an ci
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. Genuine auxiliary verbs do not function as independent verbs and, with the exception of rusuy, generally do not fuse with the preceding verb into a single verb.
    本来的な助動詞は動詞としての用法を持たず、rusuy を除いては原則として先行する動詞と合体してひとつの動詞になることはない。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/saru usually rusuy
    asserts nakagawa2024
  5. Verb auxiliaries are treated as optional members of a verb expression.
    動詞助動詞は動詞表現の随意的な構成要素として扱われる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  6. Mode of action, aspect, and modality are expressed by auxiliaries that are added to the verb in its extended form.
    動作様態、アスペクト、モダリティは、動詞の拡大形態に付加される種々の助動詞によって表される。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic
    asserts refsing1986
  7. Unlike verbs, auxiliary verbs in Ainu are invariable particles that do not undergo person inflection at all.
    助動詞は人称による語形変化を全く行わない不変化詞である点が動詞と異なる。
    analysis ainu all
    asserts sato2008