Skip to content
A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Knowledge base · Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation

74. The Morphological Causative -re / -e / -te

What suffix or suffixes does Hokkaido Ainu use to derive a causative verb, and what conditions determine their form?

北海道アイヌ語では、動詞から使役形を派生させるのにどのような接尾辞を用い、その形式は何によって決まるのか。

The productive transitivizing causative suffix and its stem-conditioned allomorphy -re/-e/-te, encoding direct/manipulative causation.

candidate topic from the first edition topic:valency/causative-morphological-re-e-te read this topic as text

53claims
170statements
22sources
5examples
7sections
57first-edition sentences

Local network

The chapter, its sections, the sources it cites, the chapters it cross-references, the forms it mentions most, and the claims grouped under it with the sources that assert, propose, doubt or reject each.

Related chapters

Forms mentioned

-ka 8-ke 7-re 5-te 3-e 3r 2-V 2y 1w 1-yar 1-ar 1kú-re 1sinót-te 1*ku-ré 1*sinot-té 1siknu 1siknu-re 1iyairaykere 1i=yairayke-re 1irankarapte 1i=rankarap-te 1sinot 1matkaci 1hapo 1ku=sinot 1en= 1a=e=tuy-e-re 1tuy-e 1kor-e-re 1u- 1e 1e-re 1ipe 1ipe-re 1ahun 1ran 1yan 1ran-ke 1ran-te 1yan-ke 1

Claims

A claim is one proposition; under it stand the statements of each source, with the stance that source takes. Claims are grouped by a model from the extracted statements and carry that status until reviewed.

  1. When a causative verb is used in an imperative addressed to multiple people, the sentence-final particle yan can cooccur with a singular verb stem whose semantic causee is singular.
    使役動詞が複数人に対する命令で用いられる場合、意味上の被使役者が単数であれば、終助詞 yan は動詞の単数形語幹と共起できる。
    distribution ainu generic -teyan
    asserts nakagawa2022
  2. Causative forms combining two personal prefixes such as *en-e-raykere (intended 'he makes me kill you') are unacceptable and unattested in Ainu.
    ＊en-e-raykere（彼が私にお前を殺させる）のように人称接頭辞が2つ重なる使役形式は容認されず、文献資料にも見られない。
    judgement ainu none *en-e-raykere
    asserts sato2023b

Sections

·

Place in the causative inventory 5 claims ·7 sentences

How does Hokkaido Ainu mark causation on verbs, and what is the role of the productive causative suffix?

  1. In traditional analyses of Ainu grammar, only the productive suffix -re/-e/-te and the indefinite causative -yar/-ar are recognized as causative markers.
    アイヌ語の伝統文法分析では、生産的な接尾辞 -re/-e/-te と不定使役の -yar/-ar のみが使役標識として認められてきた。
    analysis ainu all -re-e-te-yar-ar
    reports bugaeva2012, bugaeva2014
  2. As a direct causative marker, -re/-e/-te is basically in complementary distribution with the causative suffixes -V, -ka, and -ke, and cannot attach to verbs or roots that take them.
    直接使役の標識としての-re/-e/-teは、使役接尾辞-V, -ka, -keの付く動詞や語根には基本的に付加できず、これら4つの標識は相補分布している。
    distribution ainu usually -re-e-te-V-ka-ke
    asserts bugaeva2014
  3. Causative verbs can be formed from intransitive and transitive verb stems by suffixing -re (-te, -e) or sometimes -ka.
    使役形は、接尾辞-re（-te, -e）、あるいは時に-kaを付加することによって、自動詞語幹および他動詞語幹の双方から派生できる。
    existence ainu all -re-te-e-ka
    asserts nakagawa2022
  4. Chiri analyzes the causative suffixes -re and -te as transitivizing in some cases and causativizing in others.
    知里は使役接尾辞 -re および -te をある場合には他動詞化接尾辞、別の場合には使役接尾辞として解釈している。
    analysis hokkaido generic -re-te
    reports refsing1986
  5. Adjunct-increasing suffixes either turn intransitive verbs into transitive verbs or express the causative.
    副加語増加接尾辞は、自動詞を他動詞に変えるか、使役を表す。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986

Allomorphy 8 claims ·7 sentences

What are the different forms of the causative suffix in Hokkaido Ainu, and what phonological conditions determine which form appears?

  1. In Shizunai, verbs ending in -y or a vowel take the causative allomorph -re, verbs ending in -r take -e, and verbs ending in other consonants take -te.
    静内方言において、-y または母音で終わる動詞は使役異形態 -re を、-r で終わる動詞は -e を、その他の子音で終わる動詞は -te をとる。
    alternation hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all -re-e-te
    asserts refsing1986
  2. The causative allomorph -re attaches after vowels, y, and w; -te attaches after other consonants (p, t, k, s, m, n); and -e attaches after r.
    使役接尾辞は、母音および y, w の後では -re、その他の子音（p, t, k, s, m, n）の後では -te、r の後では -e が付加される。
    distribution ainu all -re-te-e
    asserts nakagawa2024, sato2008
  3. The productive causative suffix is phonologically conditioned as -re after vowels and /y/, -e after /r/, and -te after other consonants.
    生産的使役接尾辞は音韻論的に条件づけられ、母音および /y/ の後で -re、/r/ の後で -e、その他の子音の後で -te となる。
    alternation ainu all -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014, bugaeva2022, shibatani1990
  4. The causative suffix surfaces as -re after vowel-final stems, -e after r-final stems, and -te after stems ending in consonants other than r.
    語幹が母音で終わる動詞には -re、r で終わる動詞には -e、r 以外の子音で終わる動詞には -te が付く。
    distribution ainu all -re-e-te
    asserts kindaichi1936
  5. The stative verb kiyanne 'be older' forms the causative kiyanne-re 'treat someone as an elder / host someone respectfully'.
    状態動詞 kiyanne「年上である」は使役形 kiyanne-re を作って「〜を大切にもてなす（相手を年長者として遇する）」という表現を作ることができる。
    form-function ainu all kiyannekiyanne-re-re
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. In Ainu, causative verbs meaning 'make someone do ...' are formed by attaching suffixes such as -re, -te, -ka, or -e to verbs, with suffix selection largely determined by the stem-final sound.
    アイヌ語では、動詞に -re, -te, -ka, -e のような接尾辞を付けて使役の意味を表す動詞を作り、どの接尾辞が付くかは語幹末尾の音によって大体決まっている。
    form-function ainu generic -re-te-ka-e
    asserts sato2008
  7. The causative suffix -re/-te attaches before vowel addition to final r, appearing as -te after nukar and kor and triggering the change of syllable-final r to n.
    使役接尾辞-re/-teは語末rへの母音添加の前に付加され、nukarやkorの後では-teとなり、音節末rはnに変化する。
    ordering sakhalin all -re-tenukan-tekon-te
    asserts tangiku2022
  8. The Ainu verb ikure 'to make someone drink sake' is morphologically derived from the object prefix i-, the verb ku 'drink', and the causative suffix -re.
    アイヌ語の動詞 ikure「（人に）酒を飲ませる」は、目的語接頭辞 i-、動詞 ku「飲む」、使役接尾辞 -re から形態論的に派生している。
    diachrony ainu all ikurei-ku-re
    asserts vovin2022

Arity and the argument-frame shift 14 claims ·11 sentences· 3 examples

How does the causative suffix change the argument structure of a verb, and how are the arguments reassigned?

  1. The morphological causative suffixes (-re / -e / -te) increase the verb's arity by one, turning the base subject into an object while introducing the causer as the new subject.
    使役接尾辞（-re / -e / -te）は動詞の項結合価を1増やし、元の主語を目的語とし、使役者を新たな主語として導入する。
    form-function ainu all -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014, nakagawa2024, shibatani1990
  2. When a three-place verb is causativized by a causative suffix, a four-place verb construction results.
    3項動詞が使役接尾辞によって使役化されると、4項動詞構文が形成される。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all -re
    asserts refsing1986
  3. In causative verbs derived from intransitive verbs with a number distinction, verbal number plurality agrees with the original intransitive agent (the causee object) rather than with the grammatical subject.
    数区別を持つ自動詞から派生した使役動詞において、動詞の数の複数性は文法上の主語ではなく元の動詞の動作主（被使役者目的語）と一致する。
    form-function ainu all -re-te
    asserts nakagawa2022
  4. In direct causativization of transitive verbs with -re/-e/-te, the original object is retained and the original subject (the causee argument) also becomes an object, resulting in a double-object construction.
    他動詞の-re/-e/-teによる使役化の場合、元の目的語（O）が保たれ、かつ元の主語（被使役者となる項）も目的語（Oc）となって二重目的語構造が作られる。
    analysis ainu generic -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  5. In causative clauses based on transitive verbs, omission of the causee object occurs frequently when it is clear from context, but if the original base object is obvious, it is omitted instead.
    他動詞に基づく使役構文では、被使役者目的語が文脈上明らかな場合にその省略がしばしば起こる一方、元の目的語の方が明白であればそちらが省略される。
    distribution ainu generic
    asserts bugaeva2014
  6. Transitive verbs undergoing indirect causativization become trivalent verbs with a double-object structure.
    間接使役化された他動詞は統語的に三項動詞になり、二重目的語構造をとる。
    analysis ainu all -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  7. In Ainu, direct causative verbs formed with unproductive -V, -ke or productive -re/-e/-te can further take -re/-e/-te to express indirect causation, yielding double causative verbs.
    アイヌ語では非生産的な-V, -keや生産的な-re/-e/-teによる直接使役動詞に、さらに-re/-e/-teが付いて間接使役を表すことが可能であり、二重使役動詞を形成する。
    existence ainu -re-e-te-V-ke
    asserts bugaeva2014
  8. Double causatives in Ainu are expressed in a double-object construction with two unmarked objects.
    アイヌ語の二重使役は、無標の目的語を2つ伴った二重目的語構造で表される。
    form-function ainu generic
    asserts bugaeva2014
  9. In Ainu, double causativization of transitive verbs is possible, yielding four-place verbs, although such verbs are extremely rare.
    アイヌ語では他動詞の二重使役化すら可能であり、その結果四項動詞ができるが、これは非常に稀である。
    existence ainu generic -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  10. Causative derivatives of 2-argument locative object verbs, such as omare, osmare, and kuste, are commonly used as 3-argument locative object verbs.
    2項動詞に使役接尾辞がついた omare, osmare, kuste などの3項動詞も場所目的語動詞としてよく使われる。
    membership hokkaido generic omareosmarekuste
    asserts nakagawa2024
  11. Causative suffix -re has an arity of +1, whereas causative suffix -yar has an arity of 0.
    使役接尾辞 -re のアリティは +1 であり、使役接尾辞 -yar のアリティは 0 である。
    analysis ainu all -re-yar
    asserts nakagawa2024
  12. When a causative suffix is added to an intransitive verb whose subject is first person, the original subject marker ku= changes to the object marker en=.
    1人称が主語の自動詞に使役接尾辞が付くと、元の主語接辞 ku= は目的語接辞 en= に交替する。
    alternation ainu all ku=en=
    asserts nakagawa2024
  13. The causative verbs kore (sg) and korpare (pl) express the number of the indirect object (causee), reflecting the number of the subject of kor / korpa before causativization.
    使役動詞 kore（単数）と korpare（複数）は間接目的語の単複を表すが，これは使役化前の主語の単複が被使役者の単複として現れたものである。
    form-function hokkaido/chitose all korekorpare
    asserts sato2008
  14. The verb omare 'put into' is a causative formation ('make enter') in which the theme is the direct object (causee).
    動詞 omare「～に入れる」は「～に入らせる」という使役形であり、主題が直接目的語（被使役者）である。
    analysis ainu omare
    asserts sato2023b
matkaci sinot
girl play
‘The girl played.’
nakagawa2024:431 SAR Nakagawa ex. 954, after Tamura 1984
hapo matkaci sinot-te
mother girl play-CAUS
‘Mother made the girl play.’
nakagawa2024:431 SAR Nakagawa ex. 954′
hapo en=sinot-te
mother 1SG.O=play-CAUS
‘Mother made me play.’
nakagawa2024:431 SAR Nakagawa ex. 955

Productive vs. non-productive causatives 5 claims ·8 sentences

Which causative suffixes in Hokkaido Ainu are productive, and which are limited to a fixed set of verbs?

  1. Avalent meteorological verbs that have incorporated their subjects reject productive causativization with -re/-e/-te.
    主語を抱合した無項の気象動詞は、-re/-e/-te による生産的な使役化を許容しない。
    distribution ainu all -re-e-te
    asserts bugaevakobayashi2022, bugaeva2014
  2. Valency-increasing causatives in Ainu are divided into productive causatives (-re/-e/-te) and non-productive causatives (-V, -ke, -ka).
    アイヌ語の結合価増大使役は、生産的な使役（-re/-e/-te）と非生産的な使役（-V, -ke, -ka）に分類される。
    analysis ainu all -re-e-te-V-ke-ka
    asserts bugaevakobayashi2022proposes bugaeva2014
  3. Non-productive causatives in -ke derive only from one-argument verbs, whereas -V, -ka, and -re/-e/-te can derive causatives from both one-argument and two-argument verbs.
    非生産的な -ke 使役は1項動詞からのみ派生するのに対し、-V, -ka, -re/-e/-te は1項動詞および2項動詞の双方から使役を派生できる。
    distribution ainu all -ke-V-ka-re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014, bugaevakobayashi2022
  4. In verbs that form direct causatives with the unproductive suffixes -V or -ke, the productive causative suffix -re/-e/-te is always interpreted as an indirect causative marker.
    非生産的な接尾辞-V, -keによって直接使役を作る動詞では、生産的使役標識-re/-e/-teは必ず間接使役の標識として解釈される。
    distribution ainu all -re-e-te-ke-V
    asserts bugaeva2014
  5. When -ke and -re (-te, -e) both form causative pairs on the same verb stem, -ke is often used for inanimate objects, whereas -re is basically used for animate or volitional entities like humans.
    -ke と -re (-te, -e) が同一の動詞について使役形を作る場合、-ke は物に対して使われることが多く、-re は基本的に人間など意志のあるものに対して使われる。
    form-function hokkaido usually -ke-re-te-e
    asserts nakagawa2024

Direct and indirect causation; coercive and permissive use 14 claims ·8 sentences· 1 examples

How does Hokkaido Ainu express direct versus indirect causation, and coercive versus permissive causation?

  1. The productive causative suffix -re/-e/-te derives both direct and indirect causatives.
    生産的な使役接尾辞 -re/-e/-te は直接使役と間接使役の双方を派生する。
    form-function ainu all -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014, bugaevakobayashi2022
  2. Morphological causatives in Ainu can express both coercive causation and permissive causation.
    アイヌ語の形態論的使役は、強制使役と許容使役（許可）の双方を表すことができる。
    form-function ainu all -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014proposes sato2008reports bugaeva2014
  3. In indirect causatives, the causee object never undergoes noun incorporation or antipassivization.
    間接使役において、被使役者目的語は決して名詞抱合や逆受動化を受けない。
    absence ainu all
    asserts bugaeva2014
  4. Intransitive verbs from which direct causatives are derived by -re/-e/-te fall into two groups: non-derived intransitive verbs expressing properties or internal states/processes, and derived intransitive verbs (including those diachronically derived).
    -re/-e/-teによって直接使役が派生される自動詞には、性質や内的状態／過程を表す非派生自動詞と、（通時的なものを含めた）派生自動詞の2つのグループがある。
    membership ainu all -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  5. Derived intransitive verbs that take -re/-e/-te to form direct causatives comprise antipassive verbs with i-, lexicalized reflexive-possessive verbs, and autocausative (body-movement) verbs derived with the prefixes he- 'head' and ho- 'buttocks'.
    -re/-e/-teにより直接使役が派生される派生自動詞には、接頭辞i-による逆受動動詞、語彙化した再帰所有動詞、および接頭辞he-「頭、上部」やho-「尻、末端」により派生された自己使役（身体動作）動詞が含まれる。
    membership ainu all i-he-ho--re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  6. All base transitive verbs that undergo direct causativization with -re/-e/-te have non-agentive subjects.
    -re/-e/-teによって直接使役化される基底の他動詞は、すべて非動作主的な主語を持つ。
    distribution ainu all -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  7. Indirect causatives in Ainu can be derived from transitive verbs as well as agentive intransitive verbs using the suffix -re/-e/-te.
    -re/-e/-teによる間接使役は、他動詞からも動作的自動詞からも派生される。
    distribution ainu -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  8. According to Fukuda (Tamura) (2001), the suffix -re/-e/-te implies only coercive causation, where the causer makes the causee do something regardless of the causee's volition.
    福田（田村）（2001）によれば、-re/-e/-teは被使役者の意志・意向とは関係なしに使役主が被使役者に何かをさせるという強制使役の意味のみを含意する。
    form-function ainu all -re-e-te
    reports bugaeva2014
  9. All intransitive verb stems that undergo indirect causativization with -re/-e/-te take animate or agentive subjects.
    -re/-e/-teにより間接使役化される自動詞語基は全て、有生の主語か動作主的な主語をとるものである。
    distribution ainu all -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  10. Indirect causatives with -re/-e/-te can be derived from intransitive verbs formed by object incorporation.
    -re/-e/-teによる間接使役は、他動詞が元の目的語を抱合した派生自動詞からも派生される。
    distribution ainu exists -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  11. Depending on whether the undergoer is interpreted as agentive or not, certain verbs causativized with -re/-e/-te can be interpreted as either direct or indirect causatives.
    被動作者を動作主的であると解釈するかそうでないかによって、-re/-e/-teによる直接使役とも間接使役とも解釈されうる動詞がある。
    form-function ainu exists -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  12. When the productive causative -re/-e/-te attaches to ingestion verbs, both direct causative and indirect causative interpretations are permitted depending on the semantic properties of the causee.
    摂取動詞に-re/-e/-teが付いた場合は、被使役者ごとの意味特性に合わせて直接使役と間接使役の両解釈が許される。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest generic -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  13. In direct causatives with -ka and -re/-e/-te, non-referential direct causees can be backgrounded through noun incorporation or antipassivization.
    -ka及び-re/-e/-teによる直接使役の場合、指示的でない直接被使役者は抱合あるいは逆受動化によって背景化される。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest generic -ka-re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
  14. For the one-argument verb as 'stand', two causative forms exist: direct causative as-i (with suffix -i) corresponding to a Theme subject, and indirect causative as-te (with productive suffix -te) corresponding to an Agent subject.
    1項動詞 as「立つ」には2種類の使役形が存在し、対象（Theme）主語に対応する直接使役形 as-i（接尾辞 -i）と、動作主主語に対応する間接使役形 as-te（生産的接尾辞 -te）がある。
    form-function ainu example_only asas-ias-te-i-te
    asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
un=ipe-re wa i=kore kur un=osura noyne sioran
1PL.EXCL.O=eat-CAUS CONJ 4.O=give person 1PL.EXCL.O=abandon like seem
‘The person who had fed us then abandoned us, it seemed.’
ainukoraci1991 SAR Hamada Takashi, 'pon cape asiknep'; Ainu Times no. 24, p. 3 (ainu-times/024/3#3), extract

Motion verbs and restrictions 2 claims ·7 sentences· 1 examples

What special causative forms exist for motion verbs in Hokkaido Ainu, and what determines their choice?

  1. Motion verbs take -ke as their causative suffix in the singular, matching plural causatives in -te.
    移動動詞では単数形の使役接尾辞として -ke が用いられ、複数形の使役接尾辞 -te と対応する。
    distribution ainu all -ke-te
    asserts nakagawa2024, sato2008
  2. When the causee of an n-final intransitive motion verb is agentive, the verb can be transitivized into an indirect causative with -re/-e/-te.
    同様のnで終わる移動動詞は被使役者が動作主的である場合には、-re/-e/-teで間接使役化されうる。
    form-function ainu generic -re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2014
i=teke uk hine i=ahun-te ruwe ne akus
4.O=hand take CONJ 4.O=enter-CAUS track-POSS COP then
‘He took my hand and brought me inside.’
nakagawa2024:202 SAR Nakagawa ex. 197

Dialect variation, the -ka → -re/-te shift, and the Horobetsu switch-reference function 3 claims ·9 sentences

How does the use of causative suffixes vary across Hokkaido Ainu dialects, and what historical changes are observed?

  1. The non-productive causative function of -ka is gradually being replaced cross-dialectally by the productive causative suffix -re/-e/-te as the default causative marker.
    -ka による非生産的な使役機能は、デフォルトの使役標識である生産的な使役接尾辞 -re/-e/-te によって方言横断的に徐々に置き換えられつつある。
    diachrony ainu all -ka-re-e-te
    asserts bugaevakobayashi2022proposes bugaeva2014
  2. In Southwestern Hokkaido dialects, a few intransitive verbs are recorded with both -re/-e/-te and -ka causative derivations without semantic difference.
    北海道南西部方言でも幾つかの自動詞は、意味的に差のない-re/-e/-teと-kaの両方の派生形が記録されている。
    variation hokkaido/southwest exists -re-e-te-ka
    asserts bugaeva2014
  3. Sakhalin Ainu attests the reflexive-causative form yay-monax-te meaning 'to keep oneself awake'.
    樺太アイヌ語には「目を覚ましておく」を意味する再帰使役形 yay-monax-te が証言されている。
    existence sakhalin yay-monax-te
    asserts vovin2022