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A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Knowledge base · Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation

87. Middle, Anticausative, and the (Non-)Passive Question

How does the language encode middle, anticausative, and passive-like meanings?

その言語は中動態、逆受動、受動的な意味をどのように表現するか。

Middle/spontaneous and anticausative uses of si-/yay- and detransitives, and whether the a=/an= indefinite-agent construction constitutes a passive.

candidate topic from the first edition topic:valency/middle-anticausative-passive read this topic as text

47claims
87statements
18sources
8examples
7sections
73first-edition sentences

Local network

The chapter, its sections, the sources it cites, the chapters it cross-references, the forms it mentions most, and the claims grouped under it with the sources that assert, propose, doubt or reject each.

Related chapters

Forms mentioned

ci- 20si- 9a= 6ho- 3an= 3yay- 2i- 2ci= 2copirasa 2he- 2tuye 2he-puni 2ho-tuye 2hi 2cari 1sina 1ci-cari 1ci-sina 1=an 1=as 1*ku=ci-montapire 1a=en=montapire 1a 1e 1o 1i 1ca- 1ce- 1co- 1ci-opirasa 1cikoykip 1koyki 1opirasa 1ci=opirasa 1ceosmare 1ci=e-osma-re 1cikarkarpe 1ci=kar-kar-pe 1ci-koykarkar 1hattoho ci-koykarkar 1

Claims

A claim is one proposition; under it stand the statements of each source, with the stance that source takes. Claims are grouped by a model from the extracted statements and carry that status until reviewed.

  1. Intransitive verbs can be derived from transitive verb stems through prefixes including anticausative he- and ho-, antipassive i-, reflexive yay- and si-, and reciprocal u-.
    他動詞語幹に起動（反使役）のhe-やho-、逆受動のi-、再帰のyay-やsi-、相互のu-などの接頭辞を付加することで、自動詞を派生できる。
    existence ainu all he-ho-i-yay-si-u-
    asserts nakagawa2022

Sections

·

The ci- middle prefix 7 claims ·11 sentences· 2 examples

How does the ci- prefix derive middle voice, and what is its semantics?

  1. The verbal prefix ci- functions as a middle or object-resultative marker.
    動詞接頭辞ci-は中態または目的語結果状態の標識として機能する。
    form-function ainu generic ci-
    asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
  2. The prefix chi- functions as a middle voice marker on certain transitive motion verbs (e.g., chi-maknaraye 'go back', chi-sanasanke 'step forward', chi-riknapuni 'go up', chi-ranaranke 'go down'), interchangeable with reflexive shi-.
    接頭辞 chi- は特定の中相動詞を形成し（例: chi-maknaraye「後へ行く」、chi-sanasanke「前へ出る」）、これは「自身」を意味する shi- で置き換えることができる。
    form-function ainu chi-shi-chi-maknarayechi-sanasankechi-riknapunichi-ranaranke
    asserts kindaichi1936
  3. The prefix ci- marks middle voice, expressing an action affecting something from the viewpoint of the affected entity, and the derived verbs are often translated into Japanese as intransitives or passives.
    接頭辞 ci- は中動態を表し、何かが別のものに影響を与える行為を働いたときに影響を受けた側から表現するもので、日本語では自動詞や受動態で訳されることが多い。
    form-function ainu generic ci-
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. In Refsing's Shizunai dialect material, neither a- nor ci- expresses the middle voice.
    レフシングの静内方言資料では、a- も ci- も中動態を表す例は存在しない。
    absence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai none a-ci-
    asserts refsing1986
  5. The prefix ci- forms middle-voice expressions, as exemplified by ci-maknaraye 'go backward' and ci-riknapuni 'go upward'.
    接頭辞 ci- は中態表現を形成し、例えば maknaraye「後方へ送る」に対する ci-maknaraye「後退する」や riknapuni「上方へ送る」に対する ci-riknapuni「上昇する」などにみられる。
    form-function ainu example_only ci-maknarayeci-maknarayeriknapunici-riknapuni
    asserts shibatani1990
  6. Affixation of ci- produces attributive forms with passive force.
    ci- の接辞付加は受動の意味合いをもつ連体修飾形も生み出す。
    form-function ainu generic ci-
    asserts shibatani1990
  7. To modify a noun directly, transitive verbs must be converted into the middle (spontaneous) or passive voice with the prefix ci- or a-.
    他動詞が名詞を直接修飾する場合、接頭辞 ci- または a- を用いて中態（自発）または受動態にしなければならない。
    distribution ainu all ci-a-
    asserts shibatani1990
aynu kam ka upas ka ta ci-cari kamuyasi kam ka ci-cari kor
human flesh even snow even LOC RES-scatter evil.spirit flesh even RES-scatter while
‘Human flesh and snow lay scattered on the ground; the evil spirit's flesh too lay scattered, and …’
nakagawa2024:189 CHI Nakagawa ex. 167
kem-ihi ci-car-i uske-he
blood-POSS RES-scatter-POSS place-POSS
‘the place where blood lay scattered’
bugaevakobayashi2022:§4.2.4 SAR Handbook ex. 28, after Tamura 1996: 48

Person restriction and the ci= / ci- homophony 5 claims ·9 sentences

What person restrictions does the middle ci- prefix have, and how are first-person affected participants expressed?

  1. In Ishikari dialect, enci= and unci= are used in passive-like expressions meaning 'I was / we were (done to)'.
    石狩方言では、enci=、unci= は「私（たち）が〜された」というような受身表現に用いられる。
    form-function hokkaido/central/ishikari all enci=unci=
    asserts nakagawa2024
  2. The forms enci= and unci=, used for fourth-person subject with first-person object as passive expressions in Ishikari and Tokachi dialects, are also attested, though rarely, in Kushiro and Shizunai dialects.
    石狩方言や十勝方言で4人称主格－1人称目的格の受身表現として用いられる enci=、unci= は、例は少ないが釧路方言や静内方言にも見られる。
    distribution hokkaido/northeast/kushirohokkaido/southwest/shizunai exists enci=unci=
    asserts nakagawa2024
  3. Intransitive verbs derived with ci- are rarely used in persons other than the third person, and personal prefixes are rarely attached to them.
    ci- で形成された自動詞は3人称以外で使われることは少なく、人称接辞がついて人称形になることもほとんどない。
    distribution ainu usually ci-
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. In the Chitose dialect, to express 'I was startled/flustered', *ku=cimontapire is ungrammatical according to Nabe Shirasawa, and a=en=montapire must be used instead.
    千歳方言において、白沢ナベ氏によれば「私が不意をくらってあわてた」という場合には *ku=cimontapire とは言えず、a=en=montapire と言うべきとされる。
    judgement hokkaido/chitose example_only cimontapire*ku=cimontapirea=en=montapire
    reports nakagawa2024
  5. In Saru and Chitose dialects, middle ci-, like the personal affix ci=, often drops its i before vowels a, u, e, o to become ca, cu, ce, co.
    沙流方言や千歳方言では、人称接辞 ci= と同様に中動態の ci- も母音 a, u, e, o の前で i が脱落して ca, cu, ce, co になることが多い。
    alternation hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose usually ci-ca-cu-ce-co-
    asserts nakagawa2024

Community analysis: ci- as a productive middle 1 claims ·8 sentences

What evidence suggests ci- is a productive middle/anticausative prefix beyond published examples?

  1. In verse, the middle prefix ci- can combine with a causative suffix to form a periphrastic 5-syllable expression whose meaning is identical to the basic root (e.g., ciranaranke from ran).
    韻文において ci- は使役接尾辞と組み合わされ、もとの語幹と意味を変えずに5音節に拡張する迂言的表現を作ることができる（例：ran に対する ciranaranke）。
    form-function ainu generic ci--keciranarankeran
    asserts nakagawa2024

Anticausative semantics and the si- overlap 5 claims ·12 sentences

How does the reflexive si- overlap with anticausative semantics?

  1. The prefix si- indicates a spontaneous action or an event occurring on its own without a conscious agent.
    接頭辞 si- は、意識的な動作主を伴わずに自ずから生起する自発的な動作・現象を表す。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all si-
    asserts refsing1986
  2. The intransitive suffix -ke functions as an anticausative marker, alternating with the causative suffix -V on bound stems.
    自動詞接尾辞 -ke は反使役標識として機能し、拘束語幹において使役接尾辞 -V と交替する。
    alternation ainu generic -ke-V
    asserts bugaeva2012
  3. Direct causatives formed with -V can undergo anticausativization with -ke, which deletes the original causer subject.
    -Vによる直接使役は、元の主語を消去する-keによる逆使役化を受けることができる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest generic -V-ke
    asserts bugaeva2014
  4. The transitive prefix a- is used as a marker for the spontaneous construction, deriving intransitive verbs from transitive verbs.
    他動詞接頭辞a-は自発構文の標識としても用いられ、他動詞から自動詞を派生する。
    form-function ainu generic a-
    asserts shibatani1990
  5. Kindaichi (1931) calls the spontaneous construction formed with a- "middle passive".
    金田一（1931）はa-による自発構文を「中動受動（middle passive）」と呼んでいる。
    terminology ainu a-
    reports shibatani1990

Body-region prefixes he- and ho- 6 sentences· 2 examples

How do the body-region prefixes he- and ho- reduce verb valency?

he-puni=an kor somo a=nu wa kusu
head-rise=4.S while NEG 4.A=hear CONJ because
‘When [I] raised my head, [the sound] could no longer be heard.’
nakagawa2024:192 SAR Nakagawa ex. 171, partial
a=unuhu a=e-puni ruwe ne akusu
4.A=mother.POSS 4.A=head.of-rise track-POSS COP when
‘[I] lifted my mother's head, and then —’
nakagawa2024:192 SAR Nakagawa ex. 172, partial

The indefinite-agent construction: a= as a functional passive 21 claims ·10 sentences· 4 examples

How does the indefinite-agent construction with a=/an= function, and does it promote the patient to subject?

  1. The ablative particles orowa and orowano can be used to mark the agent in passive constructions.
    奪格小詞 orowa および orowano は受動態構文において動作主を標示するのに用いられる。
    form-function ainu some orowaorowano
    asserts kindaichi1936, shibatani1990
  2. In the passive construction, the patient is indexed on the verb by transitive object affixes.
    受動構文において、被動者（動作対象）は動詞上の他動詞目的語接辞によって標示される。
    form-function ainu all
    asserts shibatani1990
  3. The prefix a- can express middle voice, where the verb has a transitive form but an intransitive meaning (e.g., hawehe a-nu korka netopake somo a-nukar).
    接頭辞 a- は動詞の形が他動で意味が自動となる中相を表すことがある（例: hawehe a-nu korka netopake somo a-nukar「その声は聞こえるが姿が見えぬ」）。
    form-function ainu a-a-nua-nukar
    asserts kindaichi1936
  4. The passive voice in Ainu is formed by an incorporation construction in which the indefinite person is the agent.
    所相（受動態）は、不定称を動主（動作主）とする抱合形をもって示される。
    analysis ainu all a-
    asserts kindaichi1936
  5. In the language of kamuy yukar, a-un- is used for first person singular and plural in passive inflection.
    神謡語法では所相活用において第I人称単複に a-un- を用いる。
    variation ainu all a-un-
    asserts kindaichi1936
  6. While ci- middle derivations semantically share with indefinite-person passives the meaning of being affected by something, they differ in that the affected nominal phrase is the subject in the ci- middle construction, but the object in the passive construction.
    ci- による中動態は不定人称で示される受動態と意味的には共通するが、影響を受ける側の名詞句が主語となるか目的語となるかという点において受動態と異なる。
    analysis ainu generic ci-a=
    asserts nakagawa2024
  7. In the indefinite-person passive-like construction, an overt agent can be introduced marked by or(o) wa 'from'.
    不定人称による受け身様表現において、動作主を明示する場合には or(o) wa「〜から」を後置して付加する。
    form-function ainu generic or waoro wa
    asserts nakagawa2024
  8. While the passive-like construction with a= allows an overt agent to be marked with or(o) wa, the middle-voice prefix ci- does not permit expressing an agent in this way.
    a= による受け身様表現では動作主を or(o) wa で明示できるが、ci- による中動態ではそのような表現ができない。
    absence ainu none a=ci-or waoro wa
    asserts nakagawa2024
  9. The indefinite prefix a= cannot form the periphrastic reflexive-causative construction found with ci-; in oral literature, a=ranaranke means the entity designated by a= is necessarily distinct from the entity that descends.
    a= には ci- のような迂言的使役構文の用法はなく、口承文芸で a=ranaranke と言った場合、a= で示される主体と降りる主体は必ず別のものになる。
    absence ainu all a=a=ranaranke
    asserts nakagawa2024
  10. Orwa may be used to mark the agent in a passive construction.
    orwa は受動構文において動作主を標示するために用いられることがある。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic orwa
    asserts refsing1986
  11. The indefinite person prefix can be used to create a passive construction.
    不定人称接頭辞は受動構文を形成するために用いることができる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai a-
    asserts refsing1986
  12. Passive clauses in Ainu are formed as indefinite-person clauses using the prefix a-, with the agent marked by the postpositional phrase oro wa (or or wa) 'from the place of'.
    アイヌ語の受け身文は不定人称接辞 a- を用いた不定人称文によって作られ、動作主には oro wa（または or wa）「〜の所から」が付けられる。
    form-function hokkaido generic a-oro waor wa
    asserts sato2008
  13. When a personal affix is attached to mark the patient in a passive clause, an object personal affix such as en- 'me' is used rather than a subject affix.
    受け身文において人称接辞が付く場合、主格人称接辞ではなく目的格人称接辞（en-「私を」）が用いられる。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido generic en-
    asserts sato2008
  14. The affixes involved in the passive and related constructions are the first-person plural inclusive affixes, transitive a- and intransitive -an, and their corresponding dialectal forms.
    受動構文および関連する構文に関与する接辞は、1人称複数包括接辞である他動詞用a-と自動詞用-an、および対応する方言形式である。
    form-function ainu all a--an
    asserts shibatani1990
  15. In the passive construction, the transitive version of the personal affix is invariably used.
    受動構文においては、人称接辞の他動詞版が一貫して用いられる。
    distribution ainu all a-an-
    asserts shibatani1990
  16. Ainu passive clauses typically lack an overt surface agentive nominal.
    アイヌ語の受動節は、典型的には表層において動作主名詞を欠く。
    frequency ainu usually
    asserts shibatani1990
  17. When an agent is overtly encoded in a passive clause, it is marked as an oblique ablative by the postposition or(o)wa 'from'.
    受動節で動作主が表出される場合、後置詞 or(o)wa「〜から」によって標示される斜格の奪格名詞句として符号化される。
    form-function ainu orwaorowa
    asserts shibatani1990
  18. The passive transitive subject prefix on the verb does not agree in person and number with an overt agentive nominal.
    動詞上の受動の他動詞主語接頭辞は、表層の動作主名詞と人称および数において一致しない。
    absence ainu none an-a-
    asserts shibatani1990
  19. In passive clauses, the patient nominal typically appears at the beginning of the sentence or before the ablative agent nominal, rather than immediately before the verb.
    受動節において、被動者名詞は動詞の直前ではなく、典型的には文頭または少なくとも奪格の動作主名詞の前に生じる。
    ordering ainu usually
    asserts shibatani1990
  20. Plural verb forms can be used honorifically in passive clauses to express respect toward the referent of the patient nominal.
    受動節において、被動者名詞の指示対象に対する敬意を表すために動詞の複数形が敬語的に用いられうる。
    form-function ainu
    asserts shibatani1990
  21. Passive-like expressions in Ainu are formed by attaching 'oro-wa after the word denoting the actual agent and marking the subject of the transitive verb with the indefinite person, while the undergoer of the action stands in the objective case.
    アイヌ語の受け身の表現は，実際上の行為主体を表わす語のあとに 'oro-wa をつけ，他動詞の主語を不定人称にしたものであり，行為の受け手は目的格に立つ。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru generic 'oro-wa'a-
    asserts tamura1972
seta or wa aynu a=kupapa
dog place from person 4.A=bite
‘A person was bitten by a dog.’
nakagawa2024:428 SAR Nakagawa ex. 945″
nikekke wenkur sekor aynu or wa a=reko kor an yakka
wood-break poor.person QUOT people place from 4.A=call while exist.SG even.though
‘Even though [he] was called 'the wood-breaking pauper' by people —’
nakagawa2024:429 SAR Nakagawa ex. 946, after Tamura 1985: 42
sonno nispa or wa an=omap
very respected.man place from 4.A=love
‘[He] was greatly loved by a respected man.’
nakagawa2024:429 ISH Nakagawa ex. 948, after Sunazawa 1983: 73
huci oro wa a=en=omap hi ku=ki rusuy
grandmother place from 4.A=1SG.O=love NMLZ 1SG.A=do DES
‘I want to be loved by grandmother.’
sato2008:205 CHI

Does Ainu have a true passive? 7 claims ·17 sentences

Does the language have a subject-promoting passive, and if not, why?

  1. Ainu lacks a true passive construction in which the patient or undergoer of the action is promoted to subject position.
    アイヌ語には、行為の受け手（被動者）が主語の位置に昇格するような真の受動態は存在しない。
    absence ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024, tamura1972
  2. The Ainu passive construction represents a historical syntactic change from a transitive indefinite-person construction to an intransitive passive construction.
    アイヌ語の受動構文は、他動詞不定人称構文から自動詞受動構文への統語的変化を反映している。
    diachrony ainu all
    asserts shibatani1990
  3. The ability to express the demoted Actor of an impersonal passive using an oblique allative phrase may be due to the influence of the Japanese passive.
    非人称受動文において降格された行為者を斜格与格／向格（allative）句で表すことができるのは、日本語の受動態の影響と見なされ得る。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest generic
    proposes bugaeva2012
  4. The adverb 'anno marks the passive ('be -ed').
    副詞 'anno は受身の表示（「〜られる」）を行う。
    form-function sakhalin generic 'anno
    asserts murasaki2025
  5. In an Ainu passive clause, the patient remains syntactically an object rather than a subject, as shown by the requirement of nominalization with hi (or i) plus ki rusuy when expressing a desire with rusuy.
    アイヌ語の受け身文では能動文の目的語が主語にならず目的語のままであることは、rusuy構文において名詞化辞 hi（または i）を用いた hi ku-ki rusuy 形式をとることから確認できる。
    analysis hokkaido generic rusuyhiki
    asserts sato2008
  6. The Ainu passive has diachronically developed from the indefinite-person construction (or ultimately the first-person plural inclusive transitive construction), but has severed its syntactic and semantic connection with it.
    アイヌ語の受動態は不定人称構文（あるいは究極的には1人称複数包括他動詞構文）から発達したものであるが、統語的にも意味的にもそれとの歴史的関係を断ち切っている。
    diachrony ainu generic a-
    asserts shibatani1990
  7. In Classical Ainu, the passive prefix a- cannot be analyzed as an indefinite-person prefix because the passive agent is not indefinite or arbitrary, being typically clear from the context or an overt orowa-phrase.
    古典アイヌ語において受動態の接頭辞 a- は、受動文の動作主が不定または任意の人物ではなく文脈や明示的な orowa 句から特定されるため、もはや不定人称接頭辞とみなすことはできない。
    analysis ainu generic a-orowa
    asserts shibatani1990