86. The Reciprocal u-

The prefix u- and its arity effect 6 claims ·6 sentences

How does the reciprocal prefix u- affect verb valency and subject requirements?

1. The reciprocal meaning is commonly expressed by the prefix u-, and in most cases (except object-oriented and indirect reciprocals) reciprocal derivation involves intransitivization.
   相互の意味は一般に接頭辞 u- によって表され、ほとんどの場合（目的語指向および「間接」相互を除き）、相互派生は自動詞化を伴う。
   form-function ainu generic u-
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:488–489 asserts checked
2. Transitive verbs prefixed with u- function as Class II verbs and can be used as nouns.
   接頭辞u-を付した他動詞は第II類動詞となり、名詞として用いることができる。
   form-function ainu generic u-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts anchored
3. The prefix u- changes Class I verbs into Class II verbs.
   u- は第I類の動詞を第II類に変ずる。
   form-function all u-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
4. The reciprocal prefix u- reduces verb valency by 1, whereas u-ko- has a net valency change of 0 (-1+1).
   u- のアリティが -1 なのに対して、u-ko- は -1+1=0 である。
   form-function hokkaido generic u-u-ko-
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:211 asserts checked
5. When the reciprocal prefix u- 'mutually' attaches to a three-argument verb like omare 'put into', it fills one argument slot (the location), turning it into a two-argument transitive verb (e.g. a-u-w-omare 'we gather it together').
   3項動詞（例: omare「入れる」）に名詞的接頭辞 u-「互いに」が接合すると、場所の項スロットが1個埋まり、2項動詞（他動詞）となる（例: a-u-w-omare「私達がそれを拾い集める」）。
   form-function hokkaido/chitose u-omare
   asserts sato2023b
   • sato2023b asserts checked
6. The reciprocal prefix u- reduces the valence of the verb.
   相互接頭辞 u- は動詞の結合価を減らす。
   form-function ainu generic u-
   asserts shibatani1990
   • shibatani1990:46 asserts checked

The canonical reciprocal 8 claims ·6 sentences· 2 examples

How does u- form canonical reciprocal verbs expressing mutual action?

1. The reciprocal prefix u- denotes mutuality, with 'each other' functioning as the object of the verb.
   相互接頭辞 u- は相互性を表し、「互い」が動詞の目的語として機能する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai universal u-
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
2. The reciprocal prefix u- cannot attach directly to ruska 'be angry because of sth' because the verb lacks a personal object.
   相互接頭辞u-はruska「〜のことで怒る」に直接接続できない。同動詞が人称目的語をとらないためである（*u-ruskaは非文法的一）。
   judgement hokkaido/southwest/saru example_only *u-ruskaruskau-
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:482–483 asserts checked
3. Canonical subject-oriented reciprocal verbs are formed productively with u- from inherent 2-argument verbs or derived applicatives and causatives, and are always intransitivizing.
   典型的な主語指向の相互動詞は、本来的2項動詞または派生適用詞・使役動詞からu-によって生産的に派生され、常に自動詞化する。
   form-function ainu generic u-
   asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
   • bugaevakobayashi2022:15.4 asserts anchored
4. When the dual prefix u- attaches to a verb, it expresses reciprocal action ('doing X to each other').
   「両数」(dualism) を表す接辞 u- が動詞に付く時は、その動作を両者が行うことになって「何々し合う」という意味が生じる。
   form-function generic u-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
5. Intransitive verbs must be transitivized before attaching reciprocal u-.
   自動詞には特にそれを他動化してから相互接辞 u- を付ける。
   distribution all u-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts anchored
6. Verbs prefixed with reciprocal u- can appear in either singular or plural form.
   相互接頭辞u-が付加された動詞は、単数形にも複数形にも現れうる。
   distribution ainu all u-u-raykeu-ronnu
   asserts nakagawa2022
   • nakagawa2022:17.4 asserts checked
7. The reciprocal prefix u- is considered to express the reciprocal voice and is frequently translated as 'each other' or '-shi-au' ('do to each other').
   u- は相互態というヴォイスを表すものと考えられており、「互い」あるいは「〜しあう」と訳されることが多い。
   form-function ainu generic u-
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:186 asserts checked
8. In productive use, the reciprocal prefix u- expresses the meaning of 'do X to each other' or 'do X together'.
   生産的な用法において、相互接頭辞 u- は「お互いにXをする」または「一緒にXをする」という意味を表す。
   form-function ainu generic u-
   asserts shibatani1990
   • shibatani1990:46 asserts checked

Joint-participation and collective readings 2 claims ·6 sentences· 1 examples

How does u- express joint participation or collective relations beyond strict reciprocity?

1. Verbs marked with the reciprocal prefix u- can also be used for actions involving three or more participants.
   相互接辞 u- の付いた動詞は三人以上に対しても用いる。
   distribution generic u-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
2. Beyond meaning 'performing the same action reciprocally', u- can also indicate that two or more individuals are involved in the establishment of a certain act or relationship.
   u- は「相互に同じ行為を行う」だけでなく、「ある行為の成立に二人以上が関係している」というような意味を表す場合もある。
   form-function ainu generic u-u-tures-kor
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:186 asserts checked

Semantic types 5 claims ·3 sentences· 1 examples

What semantic types of reciprocal constructions are distinguished for u-?

1. The combination uko- is productive as a marker of object-oriented reciprocals.
   uko- は目的語指向の相互標識としても生産的である。
   form-function ainu generic uko-
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:488–489 asserts checked
2. Indirect reciprocals derived from 3-argument verbs reciprocalize the Recipient/Addressee object while leaving the Theme object intact.
   3項動詞から派生した間接相互動詞は、受取手／受託者目的語を相互化し、テーマ目的語をそのまま保持する。
   form-function ainu all u-
   asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
   • bugaevakobayashi2022:15.4 asserts checked
3. Ainu has object-oriented reciprocals denoting joining, mixing, or comparing together, which take semantically plural objects or coordinated noun phrases.
   アイヌ語には、結合・混合・比較を表す目的語指向の相互動詞が存在し、これらは意味的に複数の目的語または並列名詞句をとる。
   existence ainu exists u-
   asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
   • bugaevakobayashi2022:15.4 asserts checked
4. The reciprocal prefix u- can form object-oriented reciprocals with the meaning of joining objects together.
   相互接頭辞u-は、複数の対象を互いに結びつけるという意味を持つ目的語志向の相互形を形成できる。
   form-function ainu generic u-
   asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
   • bugaevakobayashi2022:15.6 asserts anchored
5. In the derived verb u-korpare (reciprocally give and take, where korpare is the plural form of kore), the verb takes nominative and accusative personal affixes, but the accusative affix refers to the transferred theme rather than the recipient.
   派生動詞 u-korpare（互いにやりとりする；korpare は kore の複数形）では主格と目的格の2つの人称接辞を取れるが、目的格は移動の対象となる「物（または人）」を指す。
   form-function ainu u-korparekorparekore
   asserts sato2023b
   • sato2023b asserts checked

Quasi-possessive reciprocals: formation and motivation 1 claims ·8 sentences· 1 examples

How does u- form quasi-possessive reciprocals with incorporated nouns?

1. In quasi-possessive reciprocals, an incorporated noun is prefixed with the reciprocal marker u-, which functions as the possessor.
   準所有相互構文では、抱合された名詞に相互接頭辞 u- が付加され、所有者として機能する。
   form-function ainu universal u-
   asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
   • bugaevakobayashi2022:15.4 asserts checked
   • bugaevakobayashi2022:15.6 asserts checked

Bare incorporated nouns and word-internal possessors 14 sentences

How are bare incorporated nouns used with possessive prefixes in Ainu?

From hearing words to agreement and obedience 9 sentences

How does the lexicalized form u-itak-nu develop meanings of agreement and obedience?

Aeuitaknup: a nominalized quasi-possessive reciprocal 9 sentences· 1 examples

What is the nominalized quasi-possessive reciprocal aeuitaknup and its meaning?

The causativized reciprocal 3 claims ·4 sentences· 1 examples

How does adding the causative suffix -re to a reciprocal verb change its valency and meaning?

1. When causative -re is attached to a one-place verb to make it a two-place verb and u- is further prefixed to make it a one-place verb, verbs like uminare and uhopunpare do not mean 'making each other laugh' or 'making each other stand up', but rather that everyone performs the action together.
   1項動詞に使役の -re をつけて2項動詞にし、さらに u- を接頭させて1項動詞にした uminare や uhopunpare のような動詞は、「互いを笑わせる」「互いを立ち上がらせる」のではなく、みんなが一緒にその行為をしていることを指す。
   form-function ainu generic u--reuminareuhopunpareuhoyuppare
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:187 asserts anchored
2. The verb form u-korpa-re literally means 'to cause each other to hold', but its meaning seems almost restricted to 'to take turns holding or receiving a child in order to dote on it'.
   u-korpa-re は「互いに持たせ合う」ということであるが、「子供をかわいがるためにかわるがわる受け取る」という意味にほぼ限られるようである。
   form-function ainu generic ukorpare
   proposes sato2008
   • sato2008:355 proposes checked
3. In the verb form u-u-ekarpa-re 'gather', the reciprocal prefix u- is used twice in different positions.
   u-u-ekarpa-re「集まる」では、同じ接頭辞 u-「互いに」が異なる位置で2度用いられている。
   distribution ainu example_only u-u-ekarpa-reu-
   asserts sato2023b
   • sato2023b asserts checked

Lexicalized forms and extension to non-verbal bases 5 claims ·8 sentences

What lexicalized forms of u- exist with specialized meanings on non-verbal bases?

1. The reciprocal prefix u- combines with certain nouns as a marker of dual number, denotes family relations on nouns and verbs, and forms reciprocal stems from relational nouns and postpositions.
   相互接頭辞 u- は特定の特定名詞と結合して双数標識として機能し、名詞および動詞上で家族関係を表し、位置名詞や後置詞から相互形を形成する。
   distribution ainu generic u-
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:488–489 asserts checked
2. The reciprocal prefix u- can attach to locative nouns, postpositions, adverbs, and incorporated body-part nouns.
   相互接頭辞u-は位置名詞、後置詞、副詞、および抱合された身体部位名詞に付加することができる。
   distribution ainu generic u-
   asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
   • bugaevakobayashi2022:15.4 asserts checked
3. The prefix u- of mutuality attaches to certain nouns to form words that appear to be vestiges of an archaic dual number.
   「互相」の接頭辞 u- が名詞に付いて、古い「両数」の名残を思わせるものがある。
   diachrony exists u-u-teku-kemau-shiku-irwak
   proposes kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 proposes checked
4. The prefix u- marks that two or more participants are involved in a relationship without requiring an equal relationship between agent and patient, as seen in the dyadic construction uonakor 'be in a relationship of father and child'.
   接頭辞u-は2人以上の参与者が関与していることを示す形式であり、動作主と被動者が対等な関係にある必要はなく、たとえば対の構成であるuonakor（父と子の関係にある）のようになる。
   form-function ainu all u-uonakor
   asserts nakagawa2022
   • nakagawa2022:17.4 asserts checked
5. The reciprocal prefix u-, often in combination with the applicative prefix ko-, frequently participates in polysynthetic word formation, especially in Classical Ainu.
   相互接頭辞 u- は、しばしば適用接頭辞 ko- と組み合わさって、（特に古典アイヌ語において）複総合的語形成に寄与する。
   distribution ainu generic u-ko-
   asserts shibatani1990
   • shibatani1990:46 asserts checked

The sociative uko- and uwe- 9 claims ·8 sentences· 2 examples

What are the sociative prefixes uko- and uwe- and how do they affect valency?

1. Valency-retaining sociative verbs meaning 'together' are formed by the prefixes uko- and uwe- (ue-), reanalyzed from the reciprocal prefix u- plus applicative prefixes ko- and e-.
   「一緒に」を表す結合価不変の共同態動詞は、相互接頭辞 u- と適用接頭辞 ko- および e- から再分析された接頭辞 uko- および uwe-（ue-）によって形成される。
   form-function ainu universal uko-uwe-ue-u-ko-e-
   asserts bugaeva2012, bugaevakobayashi2022
   • bugaeva2012:488–489 asserts checked
   • bugaevakobayashi2022:15.6 asserts checked
2. Sociative meaning can be expressed by combining the reciprocal prefix u- with causative suffixes -re/-e/-te or -ka.
   共同の意味は、相互接頭辞 u- と使役接尾辞 -re/-e/-te または -ka の組み合わせによって表すことができる。
   form-function ainu existential u--re-e-te-ka
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:488–489 asserts checked
3. Sociatives formed by combining the reciprocal prefix u- with causative suffixes -re/-e/-te or -ka carry an emotive coloring.
   相互接頭辞 u- と使役接尾辞 -re/-e/-te または -ka の結合によって形成される共同態は、感情的ニュアンスを伴う。
   form-function ainu existential u--re-e-te-ka
   asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
   • bugaevakobayashi2022:15.6 asserts checked
   • refines: Sociative meaning can be expressed by combining the reciprocal prefix u- with causative suffixes -re/-e/-te or -ka.— Specifies that the reciprocal-causative sociative construction conveys an emotive nuance.
4. Sociatives in uko- and uwe- can be either subject-oriented with a plural subject or object-oriented with a plural object.
   uko-およびuwe-による共同態は、複数主語を伴う主語志向か、複数目的語を伴う目的語志向のいずれかになりうる。
   form-function ainu generic uko-uwe-
   asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
   • bugaevakobayashi2022:15.6 asserts checked
5. In the combination u-ko-, when u- relates to the agent/subject, it means 'together' / 'as one'.
   u-ko の結合において、u- が動主に関係する場合、「一所に(なって)」という意味を表す。
   form-function generic uko-u-ko-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
6. In the combination u-ko-, when u- relates to the object of the action, it means 'bringing together' / 'combining into one'.
   u-ko の結合において、u- が動作の目的に関係する場合、「一所にして」という意味を表す。
   form-function generic uko-u-ko-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
7. The sequence u-e- combines into uwe-.
   u-e の結合は uwe- となる。
   alternation all uwe-u-e-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
8. The compound prefix uko- (analyzable as u- 'reciprocal' plus ko- 'together with') can express the meaning 'all together, in a crowd'.
   接頭辞 uko-（u-「互い」と ko-「共に」に分析される）は、「みんなで，大勢で」という意味を表す場合がある。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru generic uko-u-ko-
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:298 asserts checked
9. The prefix uko- is morphologically analyzed as reciprocal u- plus applicative ko-, but it often has the fixed, lexicalized meaning 'all together'.
   uko- は互いを表す u- と向かってを表す ko- と分析されるが、「皆で一緒に」という固定化した意味になることが多い。
   analysis usually uko-u-ko-
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:350 asserts checked