Knowledge base · Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation · this topic as a network

86. The Reciprocal u-

What functions does the reciprocal prefix u- serve in Hokkaido Ainu?

The prefix u- and its arity effect

How does the reciprocal prefix u- affect verb valency and subject requirements?

The reciprocal meaning is commonly expressed by the prefix u-, and in most cases (except object-oriented and indirect reciprocals) reciprocal derivation involves intransitivization. (Bugaeva 2012: 488–489) Transitive verbs prefixed with u- function as Class II verbs and can be used as nouns. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The prefix u- changes Class I verbs into Class II verbs. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The reciprocal prefix u- reduces verb valency by 1, whereas u-ko- has a net valency change of 0 (-1+1). (Nakagawa 2024: 211) When the reciprocal prefix u- 'mutually' attaches to a three-argument verb like omare 'put into', it fills one argument slot (the location), turning it into a two-argument transitive verb (e.g. a-u-w-omare 'we gather it together'). (Satō 2023) The reciprocal prefix u- reduces the valence of the verb. (Shibatani 1990: 46)

The canonical reciprocal

How does u- form canonical reciprocal verbs expressing mutual action?

The reciprocal prefix u- denotes mutuality, with 'each other' functioning as the object of the verb. (Refsing 1986) The reciprocal prefix u- cannot attach directly to ruska 'be angry because of sth' because the verb lacks a personal object. (Bugaeva 2012: 482–483) Canonical subject-oriented reciprocal verbs are formed productively with u- from inherent 2-argument verbs or derived applicatives and causatives, and are always intransitivizing. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4) When the dual prefix u- attaches to a verb, it expresses reciprocal action ('doing X to each other'). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) Intransitive verbs must be transitivized before attaching reciprocal u-. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) Verbs prefixed with reciprocal u- can appear in either singular or plural form. (Nakagawa 2022: 17.4) The reciprocal prefix u- is considered to express the reciprocal voice and is frequently translated as 'each other' or '-shi-au' ('do to each other'). (Nakagawa 2024: 186) In productive use, the reciprocal prefix u- expresses the meaning of 'do X to each other' or 'do X together'. (Shibatani 1990: 46)

Joint-participation and collective readings

How does u- express joint participation or collective relations beyond strict reciprocity?

Verbs marked with the reciprocal prefix u- can also be used for actions involving three or more participants. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) Beyond meaning 'performing the same action reciprocally', u- can also indicate that two or more individuals are involved in the establishment of a certain act or relationship. (Nakagawa 2024: 186)

Semantic types

What semantic types of reciprocal constructions are distinguished for u-?

The combination uko- is productive as a marker of object-oriented reciprocals. (Bugaeva 2012: 488–489) Indirect reciprocals derived from 3-argument verbs reciprocalize the Recipient/Addressee object while leaving the Theme object intact. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4) Ainu has object-oriented reciprocals denoting joining, mixing, or comparing together, which take semantically plural objects or coordinated noun phrases. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4) The reciprocal prefix u- can form object-oriented reciprocals with the meaning of joining objects together. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.6) In the derived verb u-korpare (reciprocally give and take, where korpare is the plural form of kore), the verb takes nominative and accusative personal affixes, but the accusative affix refers to the transferred theme rather than the recipient. (Satō 2023)

Quasi-possessive reciprocals: formation and motivation

How does u- form quasi-possessive reciprocals with incorporated nouns?

In quasi-possessive reciprocals, an incorporated noun is prefixed with the reciprocal marker u-, which functions as the possessor. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4, 15.6)

Aeuitaknup: a nominalized quasi-possessive reciprocal

What is the nominalized quasi-possessive reciprocal aeuitaknup and its meaning?

The causativized reciprocal

How does adding the causative suffix -re to a reciprocal verb change its valency and meaning?

When causative -re is attached to a one-place verb to make it a two-place verb and u- is further prefixed to make it a one-place verb, verbs like uminare and uhopunpare do not mean 'making each other laugh' or 'making each other stand up', but rather that everyone performs the action together. (Nakagawa 2024: 187) The verb form u-korpa-re literally means 'to cause each other to hold', but its meaning seems almost restricted to 'to take turns holding or receiving a child in order to dote on it'. (proposed in Satō 2008: 355) In the verb form u-u-ekarpa-re 'gather', the reciprocal prefix u- is used twice in different positions. (Satō 2023)

Lexicalized forms and extension to non-verbal bases

What lexicalized forms of u- exist with specialized meanings on non-verbal bases?

The reciprocal prefix u- combines with certain nouns as a marker of dual number, denotes family relations on nouns and verbs, and forms reciprocal stems from relational nouns and postpositions. (Bugaeva 2012: 488–489) The reciprocal prefix u- can attach to locative nouns, postpositions, adverbs, and incorporated body-part nouns. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4) The prefix u- of mutuality attaches to certain nouns to form words that appear to be vestiges of an archaic dual number. (proposed in Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The prefix u- marks that two or more participants are involved in a relationship without requiring an equal relationship between agent and patient, as seen in the dyadic construction uonakor 'be in a relationship of father and child'. (Nakagawa 2022: 17.4) The reciprocal prefix u-, often in combination with the applicative prefix ko-, frequently participates in polysynthetic word formation, especially in Classical Ainu. (Shibatani 1990: 46)

The sociative uko- and uwe-

What are the sociative prefixes uko- and uwe- and how do they affect valency?

Valency-retaining sociative verbs meaning 'together' are formed by the prefixes uko- and uwe- (ue-), reanalyzed from the reciprocal prefix u- plus applicative prefixes ko- and e-. (Bugaeva 2012: 488–489, Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.6) Sociative meaning can be expressed by combining the reciprocal prefix u- with causative suffixes -re/-e/-te or -ka. (Bugaeva 2012: 488–489) Sociatives formed by combining the reciprocal prefix u- with causative suffixes -re/-e/-te or -ka carry an emotive coloring. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.6) Sociatives in uko- and uwe- can be either subject-oriented with a plural subject or object-oriented with a plural object. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.6) In the combination u-ko-, when u- relates to the agent/subject, it means 'together' / 'as one'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) In the combination u-ko-, when u- relates to the object of the action, it means 'bringing together' / 'combining into one'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The sequence u-e- combines into uwe-. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The compound prefix uko- (analyzable as u- 'reciprocal' plus ko- 'together with') can express the meaning 'all together, in a crowd'. (Satō 2008: 298) The prefix uko- is morphologically analyzed as reciprocal u- plus applicative ko-, but it often has the fixed, lexicalized meaning 'all together'. (Satō 2008: 350)