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A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Back matterReferences

Entries marked reported are cited second-hand, through the source named in the citation, and were not consulted directly.

Hokkaidō Ainu

Primary sources and studies of the variety this grammar describes.

  • Ainu language learner group, Otaru アイヌ語学習者グループ（小樽）. 1991. アイヌタイムズ[Ainu Times (Ainu language learners' newsletter)]. Periodical newsletter featuring texts by speakers including 神崎雅好, 浜田隆史, 丸野和子, 萱野志朗, and 横山裕之 (Saru and Chitose dialects). Cite the underlying contributor and issue for examples..
  • Anna Bugaeva. 2026. Body-part noun incorporation and related borderline phenomena in Ainu. SLE 2026, WS2. SLE 2026, Osnabrück, 26–29 August 2026; WS2, submission 7474. Accepted programme contribution; the linked PDF is an accepted-paper list, not the paper. Full text has not been consulted.. reported
  • Asai Tōru 浅井亨. 1969. アイヌ語の文法——アイヌ語石狩方言文法の概略[An outline of the grammar of the Ishikari dialect of Ainu]. アイヌ民族誌 1. reported
  • Batchelor, John. 1903. A grammar of the Ainu language. Yokohama: Kelly & Walsh.
  • Batchelor, John. 1905. An Ainu–English–Japanese dictionary (including a grammar of the Ainu language). Tokyo: Methodist Publishing House. reported
  • Batchelor, John. 1938. An Ainu–English–Japanese dictionary, 4th edn. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten 岩波書店. reported
  • Batchelor, John (tr.). 1897. Chikoro utarapa ne Yesu Kiristo ashiri aeuitaknup (The New Testament of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ in Ainu). Yokohama: British & Foreign Bible Society. The Ainu New Testament (チコロ・ウタラパ); with the Psalms and Jonah, the largest connected-text corpus in Batchelor’s orthography. Quoted from the digitised full text; cited by book, chapter and verse..
  • Biratori Town Ainu oral-literature archive 平取町アイヌ口承文芸. 1969. 平取町アイヌ口承文芸[Biratori Town Ainu oral literature]. Saru-dialect oral-literature corpus held by the National Ainu Museum (国立アイヌ民族博物館; ainugo.nam.go.jp). Cite the underlying narrator/document for examples..
  • Bugaeva, Anna. 2008. Reported discourse and logophoricity in Southern Hokkaido dialects of Ainu. Gengo Kenkyū 133 31–75.
  • Bugaeva, Anna. 2012. Southern Hokkaido Ainu. In Nicolas Tranter (ed.), The languages of Japan and Korea 461–509. London: Routledge.
  • Bugaeva, Anna. 2015. Relative clauses and noun complements in Ainu. Bugaeva, Anna & Iku Nagasaki (eds.), アイヌ語研究の諸問題. Sapporo: Hokkaido Shuppan Kikaku Center. Applicative ko- as lexical Source (ko-nu) documented at p. 84 fn. 14.
  • Bugaeva, Anna ブガエワ・アンナ. 2014. アイヌ語使役構文に関する再考察[Reconsidering Causative Constructions in Ainu]. 北方言語研究 [Northern Language Studies] 4 127–147.
  • Bugaeva, Anna ブガエワ・アンナ. 2014. Polysynthesis in Ainu. International Symposium on Polysynthesis in the World's Languages. Tokyo: National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics. Conference abstract, 20–21 February 2014.
  • Bugaeva, Anna, Shiho Endō & Shirō Akasegawa. 2015. A topical dictionary of conversational Ainu. Web dictionary; Chitose idiolect of Ito Oda.
  • Chiba University Ainu Language Research Project 千葉大学 (eds.). 2015. 千葉大学アイヌ語資料集[Chiba University Ainu language materials collection]. Ainu oral-literature recordings (Horobetsu and other dialects); narrators include Kanenari Matsu 金成マツ. Cite the underlying narrator and document for examples..
  • Chiri Yukie 知里幸恵. 1923. アイヌ神謡集[A collection of Ainu divine epics [Ainu Shin'yōshū]]. Tokyo: Kyōdo Kenkyūsha 郷土研究社. Thirteen Horobetsu/Iburi divine songs with Japanese translations by Chiri Yukie (1903–1922). Digitised as 桃内 2008 (桃内義弥)..
  • Chudá, Klára フダー・クラーラ. 2025. 主観性から見たアイヌ語の所有表現の考察[Ainu possessive expressions from the perspective of subjectivity]. 研究論集 24 241–260.
  • Dal Corso, Elia. 2020. The interaction of relativization and noun incorporation in Southern Hokkaidō Ainu.
  • Éva Dékány. 2025. Strategies for PPs in Ainu. Proceedings of the 42nd West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics 104–111. Published proceedings paper, 2025; pp. 104–111. The linked PDF includes a publisher citation page..
  • Éva Dékány. 2025. The syntax of numeral modification in Ainu. Acta Linguistica Academica 72(4) 455–515. Published 2025, volume 72(4), pp. 455–515. Distinct from the pending MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 94 article. The publisher provides online full text; a local PDF has not been retrieved. The repository accepted manuscript is restricted until 1 January 2027..
  • Éva Dékány. 2026 (forthcoming). Two sources of numeral modification in Southern Hokkaido Ainu. MIT Working Papers in Linguistics 94. As checked 27 September 2026: MTMT record 33733114 has publishedYear=2026 and publicationPending=true; the REAL record describes an older in-press version. The author’s publication page lists the title variant “Two types of numeral modification in Southern Hokkaido Ainu” as in press and links a manuscript. No final pagination or confirmed release date. The author-posted manuscript has been consulted; the title on its first page is “Two sources”..
  • Fukazawa Mika 深澤美香. 2017. 加賀家文書の文献学的研究[A philological study of the Kaga-ke documents (dissertation)].
  • Fukazawa Mika 深澤美香. 2025. 国立アイヌ民族博物館所蔵 知里真志保記入のアイヌ語基礎語彙調査表[Preliminary Survey of the Basic Ainu Vocabulary: Chiri Mashiho’s Materials from the National Ainu Museum]. 国立アイヌ民族博物館研究紀要 [National Ainu Museum Journal] 3 136–158. Volume labelled 2024; published March 31, 2025..
  • Fukuda (Tamura) Suzuko 田村すゞ子. 1956. On the morphological structure of the verbs in Saru dialect of Ainu. Onsei no Kenkyū 7.
  • Fukuda (Tamura) Suzuko 福田すゞ子. 1961. アイヌ語沙流方言の副助詞と終助詞[The adverbial and sentence-final particles of the Saru dialect of Ainu]. 言語研究 [Gengo Kenkyū / Journal of the Linguistic Society of Japan] 39: 22–38. Published under the name 福田すゞ子 by Tamura Suzuko 田村すゞ子. Sequel to the 1960 paper on auxiliary verbs (民族学研究 24-4)..
  • Gin no Shizuku Kōdokukai 銀の滴講読会. n.d.. アコロイタク akoritak アイヌ語会話[Akor Itak: Ainu conversation, provisional video transcript]. 1–80. Provisional transcript compiled through study sessions in 2000–2014 from the Hokkaidō Utari Kyōkai teaching video, dated 1994(?) in the introduction. Publication date unspecified. The editors identify unresolved passages and note that missing person markers are not always discussed..
  • Harumi Sawai 沢井春美; Masahito Ogawa 小川正人. 2026. 山縣良温の「アイヌ語講義原稿」. 北海道博物館アイヌ民族文化研究センター研究紀要 11 15–83. Published March 2026. The printed citation gives pp. 15–83; the filename ending in P015_084 is not used as the citation range..
  • Hirosawa Shintaro 廣澤慎太郎. 2026. アイヌ語における証拠性表現の用法について：ruwe neの用法を中心に[The uses of evidential expressions in Ainu, focusing on ruwe ne]. アイヌ・先住民研究 6 63–94.
  • Hokkaido Ainu Association / Hokkaido Radio School (北海道アイヌ協会・ラジオ講座). 2001. アイヌ語ラジオ講座テキスト. Ainu-language radio lecture texts. Contributors include 大須賀るえ子 (Shiraoi). Cite the underlying speaker for examples..
  • Hokkaidō Utari Kyōkai 北海道ウタリ協会. 1994. アコㇿイタㇰ——テキスト アイヌ語会話[Akor Itak: A textbook of Ainu conversation]. Sapporo. Original textbook cited in the Gin no Shizuku Kōdokukai provisional transcript. The study group’s later video transcription is a separate document.. reported
  • Ijäs, Silja. 2023. Aynu itak a-eyaypakasnu ro — Let’s learn Ainu: Ainu language grammar guide. Online English pedagogical grammar guide.
  • Ijäs, Silja. 2023. Language revitalization through lexical modernization and neologism-coining. Aynu teetawano ankur kanpinuye 3 117–160. On modern coinages and lexical modernization strategies..
  • Kaiser, Lizanne. 1998. The interaction of noun incorporation and applicative formation in Ainu. Yearbook of Morphology 1997 157–178.
  • Kanazawa Shōzaburō 金澤庄三郎. 1898. アイヌ語会話辞典[A topical dictionary of Ainu conversation (Saru)]. Saru-dialect topical conversation dictionary, available in the NINJAL digital edition..
  • Katsunobu Izutsu; Mitsuko Izutsu; Yongtaek Kim. 2026. Inside and outside the modal (auxiliary) verb system: So-called root, deontic, and epistemic necessity with special reference to Ainu, Japanese, and Korean. SLE 2026, WS9. SLE 2026, Osnabrück, 26–29 August 2026; WS9, submission 6487. Accepted programme contribution; the linked PDF is an accepted-paper list, not the paper. Full text has not been consulted.. reported
  • Katsunobu Izutsu; Takeshi Koguma; Mitsuko Narita Izutsu. 2025. When to prefer split-self conceptions: Self-reference in solitude speech in Ainu, English, Japanese, and Korean. International Journal of Language and Culture 12(1) 118–154. Issue year: 2025. Published online 5 February 2026. These dates describe different publication events. Full text has not been consulted.. reported
  • Kawakami Matsuko 川上まつ子 (narrator). 1983. Uwepeker 14, first half. ILCAA Ainu language materials. Saru narrative recorded on 1983-08-11; transcription and annotations by 欠ヶ端和也. The year identifies the recording. Record identifiers use the zero-based sentence index of the published transcription, preserved as aa-irc/020..
  • Kawakami Matsuko 川上まつ子 (narrator). 1984. Uwepeker 15. ILCAA Ainu language materials. Saru narrative recorded on 1984-07-29; transcription and annotations by 山田慎太郎. The year identifies the recording. Record identifiers use the zero-based sentence index of the published transcription, preserved as aa-irc/022..
  • Kawakami Matsuko 川上まつ子 (narrator). 1986. ワシ神の化身と人間の娘[The incarnation of the eagle god and a human daughter]. National Ainu Museum Ainu Language Archive. Saru narrative recorded in 1986. The published transcription is preserved as nam-archive/kawakami-minwa/09; record identifiers use the zero-based sentence index in that aligned transcription..
  • Kawakami Matsuko 川上まつ子 (narrator); Hamada Takashi 浜田隆史 (transcription and notes). 1976. Uwepeker 7. 音声資料・アイヌ語 (ILCAA). Saru narrative recorded on 24 August 1976. Record identifiers refer to the zero-based sentence index in the aligned transcription aa-irc/005..
  • Kayano Shigeru 萱野茂. 1987. アイヌ語会話 初級編[Ainu conversation: Beginner].
  • Kayano Shigeru 萱野茂. 1996. 萱野茂のアイヌ語辞典[Kayano's Ainu dictionary (Saru)]. Tokyo: Sanseidō 三省堂. reported
  • Kayano Shigeru 萱野茂. 1998a. Kayano Shigeru no Ainu shinwashūsei: Uepekere hen 1[Shigeru Kayano’s collection of Ainu myths: Uepeker, volume 1]. Tokyo: Heibonsha. Example on p. 74 cited through Shiraishi (2022), §6.2, example 28c. Bibliographic details follow that chapter’s references.. reported
  • Kirikae Hideo 切替英雄. 1984. 名詞句の構造と合成名詞[The structure of noun phrases and compound nouns].
  • Kirikae Hideo 切替英雄. 1994. アイヌ語地名における等語線[Isoglosses in Ainu place names]. Place-name study of par/car distributions; cited through Nakagawa & Fukazawa (2022, §5.1, Table 22).. reported
  • Kirikae Hideo 切替英雄. 1997. アイヌによるアイヌ語表記[Ainu-language orthography by Ainu]. 国文学 解釈と鑑賞 62(1) 99–107. Consulted in the author’s revised 2016 text; page citations follow the 1997 journal printing..
  • Kitahara Jirōta 北原次郎太. 2013. 《テキスト》『上川アイヌ 熊まつり』収載の祈り詞[Text: Prayers published in Kamikawa Ainu kuma matsuri]. 千葉大学ユーラシア言語文化論集 15 233–256. Edition of prayers and songs in Kuramitsu Hideaki (1953), with the original kana, Japanese translation, reconstructed romanization and annotations..
  • Klára Chudá フダー クラーラ. 2026. 主観性から見た外部所有構文における身体部位名詞の表現をめぐって : 多言語的・類型論的視点から. 言語科学研究 3 77–95. Published 31 March 2026. This is distinct from the author’s 2025 paper on Ainu possessive expressions..
  • Kobayashi Miki 小林美紀. 2010. 動詞接頭辞si-とyay-の項同定機能[The argument-identifying function of the verbal prefixes si- and yay-].
  • Kobayashi Miki 小林美紀. 2015. アイヌ語動詞の結合価と項構造[Valency and argument structure of the Ainu verb (dissertation)].
  • Kobayashi Miki 小林美紀. 2020. 空間・場所を項とするアイヌ語動詞の結合価を増やす操作について：otkeとkamuを例として[On valency-increasing operations for Ainu verbs that take space or place as an argument: otke and kamu as case studies]. 千葉大学ユーラシア言語文化論集 22 167–174.
  • Kobayashi Miki 小林美紀. 2025. アイヌ語における主語抱合と所属形的接頭辞 e-/o- による派生[Subject incorporation and derivation by affiliative-type prefixes e-/o- in Ainu]. 北方言語研究 [Northern Language Studies] 15: 165–178.
  • Ma Changcheng 馬長城. 2021. アイヌ語沙流方言の助動詞「a」の用法について：中国語の「過」から見たタクシス機能. 北方人文研究 14 71–84.
  • Ma Changcheng 馬長城. 2023. アイヌ語の継続形式＋完了形式の意味機能. 北海道言語文化研究 21 17–33.
  • Ma Changcheng 馬長城. 2024. アイヌ語の時点を表す時間副詞. 北方言語研究 14 177–195.
  • Nakagawa Hiroshi 中川裕. 1995. アイヌ語千歳方言辞典[A dictionary of the Chitose dialect of Ainu]. Tokyo: Sōfūkan 草風館. reported
  • Nakagawa Hiroshi 中川裕. 2001. アイヌ文化——口承文芸[Ainu culture: oral literature]. Source of the four-function genre classification (songs / word play / chants / narrative) adopted by Endō (2022). Cited via Endō (2022).. reported
  • Nakagawa Hiroshi 中川裕. 2006. アイヌ人によるアイヌ語表記への取り組み[Ainu efforts toward writing the Ainu language].
  • Nakagawa Hiroshi 中川裕. 2009. アイヌ語の接頭辞[The prefixes of Ainu].
  • Nakagawa Hiroshi 中川裕 (ed.). 2000. アイヌ口承文芸テキスト集 1–24[A collection of Ainu oral-literature texts, vols. 1–24 (2000–2025)]. Series of annotated Ainu oral-literature editions published from 2000 to 2025..
  • Nakagawa Hiroshi 中川裕 (recorder, translator and annotator). 2025. アイヌ口承文芸テキスト集24：白沢ナベ口述：ウエペケㇾ パナンペ・ペナンペ魚釣り[Ainu Folklore Text 24: Nabe Shirasawa’s uepeker, Pananpe and Penanpe Go Fishing]. 千葉大学ユーラシア言語文化論集 27 147–161. 千葉大学ユーラシア言語文化論講座. Three performances by Shirasawa Nabe of Rankoshi, Chitose, recorded in 1991, 1992 and 1993. The printed title reads 口述; the repository catalogue has 後述. Text 3 (N9305231UP), recorded 23 May 1993, appears on pp.159–160..
  • Nakagawa Hiroshi, Anna Bugaeva, Miki Kobayashi & Yoshimi Yoshikawa (eds.). 2016. A glossed audio corpus of Ainu folklore. Online glossed Hokkaido folktale corpus (Chitose, Saru). Cite the underlying narrator/source for examples..
  • Nakamoto Mutsuko 中本ムツ子 (speaker); Kayano Shigeru 萱野茂 (supervising). 2009. CDエクスプレス アイヌ語[CD Express Ainugo]. Hakusuisha 白水社. Chitose-dialect language course audio+text. Speaker 中本ムツ子 (Chitose). Cite lesson/exercise number for examples..
  • National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics 国立国語研究所. 2003. アイヌ語口承文芸コーパス[Corpus of Ainu oral literature]. Aligned Hokkaido Ainu oral-literature corpus with audio (Saru, Chitose, and other dialects); narrators include 木村きみ, 小田イト, and others. Cite the underlying narrator and document for examples..
  • Niikappu Town 新冠町. 2024. 新冠百話 第七十三話. 広報にいかっぷ 694 (November) 7.
  • Okuda Osami 奥田統己. 2025. アイヌ語のわたり音と母音連続[Glides and vowel hiatus in Ainu]. 北海道方言研究会50周年記念論集 生活語の半世紀（北海道方言研究会叢書7） 40–45.
  • Ōno, Tetsuhito. 2022. The history and current status of the Ainu language revival movement. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12) ch. 12. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Handbook chapter 12, on the history and present-day practices of Ainu language revitalization..
  • Osami Okuda 奥田統己. 2026. アイヌ語のわたり音と母音連続. 北海道方言研究会会報 102 1–4. Published 20 February 2026 in issue 102, pp. 1–4; reports the presentation of 26 January 2025. Distinct bibliographic version from the 2025 anniversary-volume article, pp. 40–45. Full text has not been consulted.. reported
  • Osami Okuda 奥田統己; Yoshimi Yoshikawa 吉川佳見. 2026. キーステン・レフシン資料音声資料目録(1). 北海道博物館アイヌ民族文化研究センター研究紀要 11 99–106. Published March 2026. The article is a recording catalogue; online availability of the recordings themselves is not established by the catalogue’s publication..
  • Refsing, Kirsten. 1986. The Ainu language: The morphology and syntax of the Shizunai dialect. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press.
  • Refsing, Kirsten. 2011. Tense, aspect and actionality in the Ainu language. reported
  • Research Institute for Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa (ILCAA), Tokyo University of Foreign Studies. 1976. AA研アイヌ語資料[ILCAA Ainu language materials]. Aligned Saru/Shizunai audio-text corpus (recordings 1976–1984); ainugo.aa-ken.jp. Cite the underlying narrator/document for examples..
  • Sakaguchi Ryō 阪口諒 & Watanabe Kaori 渡邊香織. 2019. 『アイヌ炉辺物語』（1〜5話）――ジョン・バチェラー、1924年、東京[Ainu Fireside Stories (tales 1–5): John Batchelor, 1924, Tokyo]. 千葉大学ユーラシア言語文化論集 21 243–261. Re-edition of five of Batchelor’s 1924 Ainu Fireside Stories: original text, modern respelling (表記変更), and new Japanese translation..
  • Sapporo City 札幌市. 2021. 厚別区 地名のギモン. 広報さっぽろ (August), 厚別区 2–4.
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2004. アイヌ文学における一人称体の問題[The problem of the first-person form in Ainu literature].
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2006a. The Study of the Ainu Language. Journal of the Graduate School of Letters 1 45–52. Graduate School of Letters, Hokkaido University.
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2006b. 千歳方言のアスペクト——kor an、wa an[Aspect in the Chitose dialect: kor an, wa an].
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2007. 千歳方言の再帰接頭辞yay-とsi-について[On the reflexive prefixes yay- and si- in the Chitose dialect].
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2008. アイヌ語文法の基礎[Foundations of Ainu grammar]. Tokyo: Daigaku Shorin 大学書林.
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2009. アイヌ語の条件表現について[On the conditional expressions of Ainu]. Tsumagari Toshirō 津曲敏郎 (ed.), サハリンの言語世界 [The linguistic world of Sakhalin] 49–56. Sapporo: Graduate School of Letters, Hokkaido University 北海道大学大学院文学研究科.
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2009. アイヌ語虻田方言の英雄叙事詩（yukar）テキストとその言語的特徴[The heroic epic (yukar) text of the Abuta dialect of Ainu and its linguistic characteristics]. 北海道立アイヌ民族文化研究センター研究紀要 [Research Bulletin of the Hokkaido Ainu Culture Research Center] 15: 1–38. Abuta yukar narrated by 遠島タネランケ, recorded by Sarashina Genzō. The recording ends before the story is complete. The raised (1) in the article heading refers to an acknowledgment footnote..
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2021. アイヌ語千歳方言の位置名詞orの用法[Usage of the Position Noun or in the Chitose Dialect of Ainu]. 北方言語研究 11 81–98.
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2023. アイヌ語[The Ainu language (handbook/encyclopedia grammar)]. 世界の言語シリーズ / 朝倉日本語講座.
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2023. アイヌ語の動詞の結合価と3項動詞[Verb valency and three-place verbs in Ainu]. 北方人文研究 16 37–64.
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2025. Basic Sentence Structures in Ainu. Studia Orientalia 126 353–376.
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2025. 書評：中川裕『アイヌ語広文典』[Review of Nakagawa Hiroshi's Ainugo kōbunten].
  • Silja Maria Ijas. 2026. Language Attitudes of Ainu People toward their Language, its Speakers, and Linguistic Institutions: Implications for Revitalization and Modern Use. Hokkaido University (doctoral thesis). Degree awarded 25 March 2026. Repository full-text release date: 24 March 2031. Abstract and summary documents must not be represented as the full thesis. Only the public summary and abstract have been consulted.. reported
  • Simeon, George John. 1968. The phonemics and morphology of Hokkaido Ainu. Los Angeles: PhD dissertation, University of Southern California. Structuralist sketch from June–July 1967 fieldwork on the Hiratori, Horobetsu, and Higashi-Shizunai dialects; informants Kayano Shigeru, Itaku Haru, and Sasaki Taro..
  • Takahashi Yasushige 高橋靖以. 2014. アイヌ語十勝方言における名詞化節の脱従属節化[Insubordination of nominalized clauses in the Tokachi dialect of Ainu]. 北方言語研究 4 149–155.
  • Takahashi Yasushige 高橋靖以. 2015. アイヌ語十勝方言における1人称と包括人称について[On the first and inclusive persons in the Tokachi dialect]. 北方言語研究 5 205–213.
  • Takahashi Yasushige 高橋靖以. 2017. アイヌ語幌別方言の使役接尾辞について[On the causative suffixes in the Horobetsu dialect of Ainu]. 北方言語研究 7 99–106.
  • Takahashi Yasushige 高橋靖以. 2018. アイヌ語幌別方言における名詞化辞の文法化[The grammaticalization of nominalizers in the Horobetsu dialect]. 北方言語研究 8 107–114.
  • Takahashi Yasushige 髙橋靖以. 2011. 十勝方言の指示表現[Demonstrative expressions in the Tokachi dialect].
  • Takahashi Yasushige 髙橋靖以. 2013. 十勝方言における証拠性と叙述類型[Evidentiality and predication types in the Tokachi dialect].
  • Takahashi Yasushige 髙橋靖以. 2014. アイヌ語十勝方言例文集[A collection of example sentences in the Tokachi dialect of Ainu].
  • Takahashi Yasushige 髙橋靖以. 2016. 十勝方言の否定構造について[On the negation structures of the Tokachi dialect].
  • Tamura Masashi 田村雅史. 2011. アイヌ語白糠方言の文法記述[A grammatical description of the Shiranuka dialect of Ainu].
  • Tamura Suzuko 田村すゞ子. 1960. 沙流方言の助動詞[Auxiliary verbs in the Saru dialect].
  • Tamura Suzuko 田村すゞ子. 1971. 沙流方言の人称代名詞[Personal pronouns in the Saru dialect].
  • Tamura Suzuko 田村すゞ子. 1972. 沙流方言の人称の種類[The categories of person in the Saru dialect].
  • Tamura Suzuko 田村すゞ子. 1973. アイヌ語の詩について——詩の言語的特徴[On Ainu poetry: Linguistic characteristics of verse]. Source of the five-syllable metrical description (p. 56); cited via Okuda (2022).. reported
  • Tamura Suzuko 田村すゞ子. 1988. アイヌ語[Ainu language [encyclopedia article]]. Source of the Northeast/Southwest bipartite division of Hokkaido Ainu dialects; English adaptation as Tamura (2000). Cited second-hand via Nakagawa & Fukazawa (2022).. reported
  • Tamura Suzuko 田村すゞ子. 1996. アイヌ語沙流方言辞典[The Ainu–Japanese dictionary: Saru dialect]. Tokyo: Sōfūkan 草風館.
  • Tamura Suzuko 田村すゞ子. 1997. アイヌ語[Ainu]. In 亀井孝・河野六郎・千野栄一 (ed.), 言語学大辞典セレクション 日本列島の言語 1–88. Tokyo: 三省堂.
  • Tamura, Suzuko. 2000. The Ainu language. ICHEL Linguistic Studies 2. Tokyo: Sanseidō 三省堂. English version of her 1988 アイヌ語 encyclopedia article (Saru). reported
  • Yokoyama Hiroyuki 横山裕之. 2002. noya. Ainu Times 24 (27 December 2002). Includes a quotation attributed to Nakamoto Mutsuko. The aligned transcription is ainu-times/024/1; its record identifiers use zero-based sentence indices..
  • Yoshihisa Kishimoto 岸本宜久. 2026. アイヌ語鵡川方言テキスト(3) : シナ皮剥ぎの思い出. Northern Language Studies 16 239–264. Published 20 March 2026. A journal text edition/research note, with speaker biography and recording context..
  • Yoshikawa Yoshimi 吉川佳見. 2018. アイヌ語の助動詞 aan と証拠性[The auxiliary aan and evidentiality in Ainu]. 北方言語研究 [Northern Language Studies] 8.
  • Yoshikawa Yoshimi 吉川佳見. 2020. アイヌ語における存在型アスペクト形式[Existential-type aspect forms in Ainu (dissertation)].
  • Yoshikawa Yoshimi 吉川佳見. 2021. アイヌ語静内方言の kane an、wa an と状態性動詞との共起について. アイヌ語・アイヌ文化研究の課題 5–14.
  • Yoshikawa Yoshimi 吉川佳見. 2022. Existential aspectual forms in the Saru and Chitose dialects of Ainu. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12). Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
  • Yoshimi Yoshikawa 吉川佳見. 2026. アイヌ語沙流方言における受動表現. 語学研究所論集 30 1–6. Volume 30, pp. 1–6; publication date 31 March 2026. The PDF header reads “30(28), 2025 (Published 2026)”. The PDF prints an acceptance date of 30 November 2026, later than its publication date; this inconsistency is unresolved..
  • Yu Zhuo 于拙. 2025. アイヌ語コーパスの構築およびテキスト分析の研究：形態素の自動解析処理を中心に[Building an Ainu corpus and analysing its texts: automatic morphological processing]. Doctoral research on Ainu corpus construction; §2.5.1 traces the = person-marker notation to Nakagawa and separates it from the Leipzig clitic sign..

Sakhalin Ainu

Works on Sakhalin varieties, cited for contrast.

Pan-Ainu, comparative and methodological works

Dialectology, reconstruction, typology, and conventions.

  • Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y.. 2004. Evidentiality. Oxford: Oxford University Press. reported
  • Alonso de la Fuente, José Andrés. 2022. The Ainu language through time. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12) ch. 5. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Handbook chapter 5, reviewing reconstructions of Ainu phonology and morphology..
  • Alpatov, Vladimir M., Anna Ju. Bugaeva & Vladimir P. Nedjalkov. 2007. Reciprocals and sociatives in Ainu. In Vladimir P. Nedjalkov (ed.), Reciprocal constructions (Typological Studies in Language 71), vol. 4 1751–1822. Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
  • Anna Bugaeva. 2026. From two to one: Paratactic clause chaining as a source of complex predicates in Ainuic. CELEA4 Book of Abstracts 43–44. CELEA4, Venice, 5–8 May 2026. Abstract on printed pp. 43–44 (PDF pages 44–45). The linked document is the conference abstract book..
  • Asai Tōru 浅井亨. 1974. アイヌ語諸方言の分類について——語彙統計学的方法の再検討[On the classification of Ainu dialects: a reconsideration of the lexicostatistic method]. 北方文化研究 [Hoppō Bunka Kenkyū] 8: 45–136. Cluster analysis of the Hattori & Chiri (1960) matrix plus Chitose data; the "major division" paper reanalysed by Ono (2020). Cited second-hand via Nakagawa & Fukazawa (2022) and Ono (2020).. reported
  • aynu-corpora Discord community. 2023–2026. Community linguistic discussion (aynu-corpora Discord archive). Community discussions of Ainu grammar and texts..
  • Baker, Mark C.. 1988. Incorporation: A theory of grammatical function changing. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. reported
  • Baker, Mark C.. 1996. The polysynthesis parameter. Oxford: Oxford University Press. reported
  • Barrie, Michael & Éric Mathieu. 2021. Noun incorporation and polysynthesis.
  • Bugaeva, Anna. 2006. Applicatives in Ainu.
  • Bugaeva, Anna. 2010. Ainu applicatives in typological perspective. Studies in Language 34(4) 749–801.
  • Bugaeva, Anna. 2015. An equivalent of the standard of comparison relativization in Ainu.
  • Bugaeva, Anna. 2021. Unspecified participant: A case of antipassive in Ainu. In Katarzyna Janic & Alena Witzlack-Makarevich (ed.), Antipassive: Typology, diachrony, and related constructions (TSL 130). Amsterdam & Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
  • Bugaeva, Anna. 2025. A diachronic study of anticausatives in Ainu.
  • Bugaeva, Anna (ed.). 2022. Handbook of the Ainu language. Handbooks of Japanese Language and Linguistics 12. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
  • Bugaeva, Anna & Miki Kobayashi. 2022. Verbal valency. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12) 515–548. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
  • Bugaeva, Anna; Nichols, Johanna; Bickel, Balthasar. 2022. Appositive possession in Ainu and around the Pacific. Linguistic Typology 26(1) 43–88. First published online in 2021..
  • Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins & William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar: Tense, aspect, and modality in the languages of the world. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. reported
  • Cambridge University Press. 2022. Cambridge English–Turkish Dictionary: obey.
  • Chamberlain, Basil Hall. 1887. The language, mythology, and geographical nomenclature of Japan viewed in the light of Aino studies. Tokyo: Imperial University. reported
  • Chiri Mashiho 知里真志保. 1952. アイヌ語に於ける母音調和[Vowel harmony in Ainu].
  • Chiri Mashiho 知里真志保. 1953. 分類アイヌ語辞典[A classified dictionary of Ainu (plants, animals, humans), 1953–1962]. Tokyo: Nihon Jōmin Bunka Kenkyūjo 日本常民文化研究所. reported
  • Chiri Mashiho 知里真志保. 1955. アイヌ文学[Ainu literature]. 日本詩人全集 27. Tokyo: 新潮社. Source of genre-term dialect distribution data and variant sakehe forms; cited via Endō (2022).. reported
  • Chiri Mashiho 知里真志保. 1956. 地名アイヌ語小辞典[A small dictionary of Ainu place-name language (Chimei Ainugo shō jiten)]. Tokyo: Nihon Jōmin Bunka Kenkyūjo 日本常民文化研究所. Ainu place-name etymological dictionary; cited through Shibatani (1990 §1).. reported
  • Chiri Mashiho 知里真志保. 1956. アイヌ語入門――とくに地名研究者のために[An introduction to Ainu, especially for place-name researchers]. Sapporo: Nire Shobō 楡書房. Includes a critique of Batchelor’s dictionary; cited through Refsing (1986: 18–19) and Nakagawa (2024: 90).. reported
  • Compton, Richard. 2012. The syntax and semantics of modification in Inuktitut: Adjectives and adverbs in a polysynthetic language. PhD dissertation, University of Toronto. reported
  • Comrie, Bernard. 1976. Aspect: An introduction to the study of verbal aspect and related problems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. reported
  • Comrie, Bernard, Martin Haspelmath & Balthasar Bickel. 2015. The Leipzig Glossing Rules: Conventions for interlinear morpheme-by-morpheme glosses. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology & Leipzig University. Revised February 2008; last changed 31 May 2015..
  • Corbett, Greville G.. 2000. Number. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. reported
  • Croft, William. 1991. The evolution of negation. Journal of Linguistics 27(1) 1–27. reported
  • Dal Corso, Elia. 2018. Ainu evidentiality: A semantico-pragmatic analysis and a morphosyntactic account. London: SOAS, University of London. PhD dissertation (the definitive study of Ainu evidentiality).
  • Dehkhoda, Ali-Akbar دهخدا، علی‌اکبر. 1931–1973. لغت‌نامهٔ دهخدا: حرف‌شنوی[Dehkhoda Dictionary: harf-šenavi].
  • Diessel, Holger. 1999. Demonstratives: Form, function and grammaticalization. Typological Studies in Language 42. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. reported
  • Endō Shiho 遠藤志保. 2022. Ainu oral literature. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12) ch. 10. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Handbook chapter 10, on genre, register and rhetoric in Ainu oral literature..
  • Evans, Nicholas. 2003. Bininj Gun-wok: A pan-dialectal grammar of Mayali, Kunwinjku and Kune. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. reported
  • Foley, William A. & Robert D. Van Valin, Jr.. 1984. Functional syntax and universal grammar. Cambridge Studies in Linguistics 38. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. reported
  • Fukazawa Mika 深澤美香 & Ono Yohei 小野洋平. 2024. 方言境界再考―アイヌ語の方言境界を例として―[Dialect boundaries reconsidered: Ainu dialect boundaries as a case study]. 北方言語研究 [Northern Language Studies] 14 155–176.
  • Gerdts, Donna B.. 1998. Incorporation. In Andrew Spencer & Arnold M. Zwicky (ed.), The Handbook of Morphology 84–100. Oxford: Blackwell. reported
  • Givón, Talmy. 1978. Negation in language: Pragmatics, function, ontology. In Peter Cole (ed.), Pragmatics (Syntax and Semantics 9) 69–112. New York: Academic Press. reported
  • Haspelmath, Martin. 1997. Indefinite pronouns. Oxford Studies in Typology and Linguistic Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. reported
  • Hattori Shirō 服部四郎 (ed.). 1964. アイヌ語方言辞典[An Ainu dialect dictionary]. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten 岩波書店. Comparative dictionary of nine directly surveyed varieties, with Northern Kuril material quoted from Torii (1903)..
  • Hattori Shirō 服部四郎 & Chiri Mashiho 知里真志保. 1960. アイヌ語方言の語彙統計学的研究[A lexicostatistic study of the Ainu dialects]. 民族學研究 [Minzokugaku Kenkyū] 24(4): 1–56. Lexicostatistical comparison of 19 varieties (13 Hokkaido and six Sakhalin) using a 200-item list. Cited through Nakagawa & Fukazawa (2022) and Ono (2020).. reported
  • Hopper, Paul J. & Elizabeth Closs Traugott. 2003. Grammaticalization. Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2nd edition (1st ed. 1993); the standard typological reference for grammaticalization clines and layering. reported
  • Itabashi Yoshizō 板橋義三. 2001. 樺太アイヌ語の母音の長短と北海道アイヌ語のピッチアクセントとの史的関係[The diachronic relation between Sakhalin Ainu vowel length and Hokkaido Ainu pitch accent].
  • Janhunen, Juha A.. 2022. Ainu ethnic origins. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12) ch. 2. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Chapter 2 of the Handbook; Ainu as a language isolate, ethnogenesis (Jōmon/Satsumon/Okhotsk), internal taxonomy, and contact-loan diagnostics..
  • José Andrés Alonso de la Fuente. 2026. What Do Eels, Teeth and Counting People Have in Common? On the “Nimak Rule” in Ainu. International Journal of Eurasian Linguistics 8(1) 1–13. Publication date: 11 March 2026. Metadata and abstract verified against the publisher’s Crossref deposit; full text has not been consulted.. reported
  • Kantarovich, Jessica. 2024. Incorporation as a grammaticalization pathway: Chukchi incorporating morphology in areal perspective. Journal of Language Contact 17(1) 163–217. reported
  • Kasuga Hayato 春日勇人. 2026. 深澤・小野（2025）の分類手法を拡張したアイヌ語多地点方言分類―語彙特徴・規則性特徴・地理情報の統合による75地点の計量的分析―[Multi-locality classification of Ainu dialects extending Fukazawa and Ono (2025): a quantitative analysis of 75 sites combining lexical features, regularity features and geographic information]. 日本言語学会第172回大会要旨集 92–93. Poster P-11 abstract, Linguistic Society of Japan 172nd meeting, June 27–28, 2026..
  • Keenan, Edward L. & Bernard Comrie. 1977. Noun phrase accessibility and universal grammar. Linguistic Inquiry 8(1) 63–99. reported
  • Kindaichi Kyōsuke 金田一京助. 1931. アイヌ叙事詩ユーカラ概説[An outline of the Ainu heroic epic yukar]. Tokyo: 龍吟社. Source of the five-syllable metre description (p. 165); cited via Okuda (2022).. reported
  • Kindaichi Kyōsuke 金田一京助. 1933. アイヌ文学[Ainu literature]. Tokyo: Kawade Shobō 河出書房.
  • Kindaichi Kyōsuke 金田一京助. 1935. 原始文学としてのユーカラ[Yukar as primitive literature]. Source of the elegant-language (atomte itak) genre-density ranking; reprinted in 金田一京助全集 11 (Sanseidō, 1992) and cited via Endō (2022) with 1992 page numbers (pp. 381–382 for the elegant-language passage).. reported
  • Kindaichi Kyōsuke 金田一京助 & Chiri Mashiho 知里真志保. 1936. アイヌ語法概説[An outline of Ainu grammar]. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten 岩波書店.
  • Laufer, Berthold. 1917. The vigesimal and decimal systems in the Ainu numerals with some remarks on Ainu phonology. Journal of the American Oriental Society 37 192–208. Quoted via Majewicz (2022: §5).. reported
  • Leal, Jonatas & Oliver Glanz. 2021. “God’s obedience”: A linguistic and narrative exploration of the Hebrew idiom in 1 Kings 17:22 and its theological implications. Andrews University Seminary Studies 59(2) 203–226.
  • Majewicz, Alfred F.. 2022. Ainu language Western records. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12). Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
  • Martijn Knapen; Miki Mizushima; Hidetoshi Shiraishi; Itsuji Tangiku; Yoshiko Yamada. 2027 (forthcoming). Ethnobotany on Sakhalin: The History and Structure of Nivkh, Uilta and Ainu Taxonyms and Taxonomies. In Martine Robbeets & Martijn Knapen (ed.), Linguistic Reconstruction and Historical Ecology in the North Pacific Rim. Routledge. As checked 27 September 2026: the publisher lists the volume as forthcoming in March 2027 (copyright 2027). Its table of contents verifies this chapter’s title and author order. The earlier November 2026 announcement has been superseded. Distinct from the 2025 Ethnobotany on Sakhalin article. Full text has not been consulted.. reported
  • Miestamo, Matti. 2005. Standard negation: The negation of declarative verbal main clauses in a typological perspective. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. reported
  • Mika Fukazawa 深澤美香; Yohei Ono 小野洋平. 2026. 語形と規則性の複合的なデータの構築 : アイヌ語基礎語彙の情報の最大化に向けて. Northern Language Studies 16 151–173. Published 20 March 2026. Authors verified from the publisher PDF: 深澤美香 and 小野洋平. Distinct from the 2025 conference presentation..
  • Ministry of Education, Republic of China (Taiwan). 2021. 重編國語辭典修訂本: 聽話[Revised Mandarin Chinese Dictionary: tīnghuà].
  • Mithun, Marianne. 1984. The evolution of noun incorporation. Language 60(4) 847–894. reported
  • Nakagawa Hiroshi 中川裕. 2024. アイヌ語広文典[Ainugo kōbunten [An extensive grammar of the Ainu language]]. Tokyo: Hakusuisha 白水社.
  • Nakagawa Hiroshi 中川裕 & Fukazawa Mika 深澤美香. 2022. Hokkaido Ainu dialects: Towards a classification of Ainu dialects. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12). Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
  • Nakagawa, Hiroshi 中川裕. 2022. Verbal number. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12). Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
  • Nakagawa, Hiroshi 中川裕. 2022. Parts of speech — with a focus on the classification of nouns. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12) 473–514. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Chapter 14 of the Handbook.
  • Nam, Deokhyun 南徳鉉. 2021. Some evidence for the origin of the Ainu antipassive prefix i-.
  • Nichols, Johanna. 1986. Head-marking and dependent-marking grammar. Language 62(1) 56–119. reported
  • Nikitina, Tatiana & Anna Bugaeva. 2021. Logophoric speech is not indirect: Towards a syntactic approach to reported speech constructions. Linguistics 59(3).
  • Ochiai Izumi 落合いずみ. 2021. アイヌ語の数詞再考——二十進法における下方算法から上方算法へ[Ainu numerals reconsidered: from subtractive to additive counting in the vigesimal system].
  • Ochiai Izumi 落合いずみ. 2023. 「蝦夷国報告書」のアイヌ語数詞における上位起算法の消失[The loss of overcounting in the Ainu numerals of the Report on the Ezo Country]. 北方言語研究 13 283–296.
  • Ochiai Izumi 落合いずみ. 2023. A disparity in the final vowels in Ainu: Word-final CV and CCV. Phonological Externalization.
  • Ochiai Izumi 落合いずみ. 2026. 日本語借用形から探るアイヌ語sikerpe「キハダの実」の語源[The etymology of Ainu sikerpe "Amur cork tree fruit" as revealed by its Japanese loan forms]. 北方言語研究 [Northern Language Studies] 16: 175–199.
  • Okuda Osami 奥田統己. 2022. Meter in Ainu oral literature. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12) ch. 11. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Handbook chapter 11, comparing syllable count and accent in Ainu verse..
  • Ono, Yohei 小野洋平. 2020. Reconsideration of “Major Division” of Ainu Dialects: A Statistical Reanalysis of Asai (1974). Northern Language Studies 10 231–254.
  • Peng, Fred C. C. & Barron Brainerd. 1970. A grammar of Ainu number names. Lingua 25 381–397. reported
  • Peterson, David A.. 2007. Applicative constructions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. reported
  • Rosen, Sara Thomas. 1989. Two types of noun incorporation: A lexical analysis. Language 65(2) 294–317. reported
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2012. アイヌ語の現状と復興[The current situation and revitalization of the Ainu language].
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2016. A classification of the types of noun incorporation in Ainu and its implications for morphosyntactic typology. In Ekaterina Gruzdeva & Juha Janhunen (ed.), Crosslinguistics and linguistic crossings in Northeast Asia (Studia Orientalia 117). Helsinki.
  • Satō Tomomi 佐藤知己. 2022. Noun incorporation in Ainu. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12). Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
  • Shibatani, Masayoshi. 1988. Polysynthesis in Ainu and theories of incorporation. 210–211. Japanese conference abstract; the published title is in English..
  • Shibatani, Masayoshi. 1990. The languages of Japan. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  • Shiraishi Hideto 白石英才. 2022. Phonetics and phonology. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12). Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
  • Shiraishi Hidetoshi 白石英才 & Tangiku Itsuji 丹菊逸治. 2022. Language contact in the north. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12) ch. 7. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Handbook chapter 7, on Sakhalin language contact and borrowing between Ainu, Nivkh, Uilta and Manchu..
  • Shiratori Shiori 白鳥詩織. 2026. 口蓋化子音の改訂に向けたアイヌ祖語 *ia の提唱[A proposal of Proto-Ainu *ia toward a revision of the palatalized consonants].
  • Stassen, Leon. 1997. Intransitive predication. Oxford: Oxford University Press. reported
  • Tajima, Masakazu. 1992. Complex predicate formation in Ainu. Montreal: McGill University. MA thesis.
  • Takahashi Yasushige 髙橋靖以. 2022. Aspect and evidentiality. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12). Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton.
  • Talmy, Leonard. 2000. Toward a cognitive semantics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. reported
  • Tomomi Satō 佐藤知己. 2026. アイヌ語調査資料のデータベース化に関する基礎的研究(15). 北海道大学アイヌ・先住民研究センター. Publication recorded as March 2026 by Hokkaido University’s researcher directory. Bibliographic record only; no grammatical conclusions have been inferred from the title. Full text has not been consulted.. reported
  • Vovin, Alexander. 1993. A reconstruction of Proto-Ainu. Brill's Japanese Studies Library 4. Leiden: Brill. reported
  • Vovin, Alexander. 2022. Ainu elements in early Japonic. In Anna Bugaeva (ed.), Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12) ch. 6. Berlin & Boston: De Gruyter Mouton. Chapter 6 of the Handbook; the Ainu-loans-in-Old-Japanese thesis (Man'yōshū material; §§1–6). A live but contested claim..
  • Yasuoka Kōichi 安岡孝一 & Yasuoka Motoko 安岡素子. 2023. 『蝦夷島奇觀』の漢訳アイヌ語[The Sino-Ainu glosses of the Ezoshima kikan].
  • Yohei Ono 小野洋平; Mika Fukazawa 深澤美香. 2026. From Classification to History: Examining New Lexicostatistical Methodologies in Using the Data in Ainu Dialects. Northern Language Studies 16 121–150. Published 20 March 2026. Repository supplements include a supplementary PDF and two text data files..
  • Yoshida Erika 吉田恵理佳. 2013. アイヌ語の被抱合名詞に関する一考察[A note on incorporated nouns in Ainu]. 思言 [Shigen: Tokyo University of Foreign Studies linguistics journal] 9 167–174.