Chapter 12Katakana Orthography and the Extended Small-Kana Codas
Katakana conventions for Ainu syllables, variation in final-consonant spelling, and the interpretation of older sources.
12.1 Writing Ainu in katakana
Katakana has a long history in Ainu writing. Its conventions vary among authors and publications, particularly in the representation of syllable-final consonants. The textbook Akor Itak helped establish a widely used set of conventions, while speakers and linguists continued to use other systems Nakagawa (2024: 61–69). An unfamiliar spelling should therefore be read with the source's own explanation of its kana.
The central problem is the closed syllable. A full-size kana usually suggests a consonant followed by a vowel, whereas Ainu permits syllables ending in consonants. Small kana make that distinction visible. In a small-kana spelling, the character following the vowel can represent a final consonant without adding another vowel to the word Satō (2008: 15–16).
12.2 Vowels and open syllables
The five vowel letters correspond to ア、イ、ウ、エ、オ. Many consonant–vowel syllables use familiar kana, such as カ for ka and マ for ma. Several combinations require particular attention. Satō gives the following spellings Satō (2008: 16):
| Latin | Katakana | Reading |
|---|---|---|
| tu | トゥ | A single open syllable with /t/ and /u/ |
| ye | イェ | A glide followed by /e/ |
| we | ウェ | A glide followed by /e/ |
| wo | ウォ | A glide followed by /o/ |
The syllable tu has also been written with ヅ、ド, and kana bearing a handakuten. These are documented Ainu spelling conventions; interpreting them simply as their ordinary Japanese sound values can give the wrong reading Nakagawa (2024: 66–67).
12.3 Small kana for final consonants
The table summarizes the small-kana conventions described by Satō, with the alternatives for final /t/ and /r/ discussed by Nakagawa Satō (2008: 16); Nakagawa (2024: 63, 68–69). It is a guide to reading these systems; individual editions may choose differently.
| Final consonant | Kana | Variation |
|---|---|---|
| /p/ | ㇷ゚ | Small hu with handakuten |
| /t/ | ッ, ㇳ | The two conventions treat consonant sequences differently. |
| /k/ | ㇰ | Small ku |
| /s/ | ㇱ, ㇲ | The choice depends on the source's convention. |
| /m/ | ㇺ | Small mu |
| /n/ | ン | Usually full-size in the systems described here |
| /r/ | ㇽ; ㇻ, ㇼ, ㇽ, ㇾ, ㇿ | A fixed letter or a series selected by the preceding vowel |
| /y/, /w/ | ィ, ゥ | Some systems use full-size イ and ウ. |
The Unicode Katakana Phonetic Extensions chart includes small kana used for Ainu. Its character repertoire provides the letters needed to reproduce several conventions; the chart does not prescribe which orthography a writer should use.
12.4 The final p spelling
The character sequence ㇷ゚ represents final /p/. It combines small ㇷ with the circular handakuten. The small size matters: it distinguishes a syllable-final consonant from the full open syllable written プ in a system that uses size consistently Satō (2008: 16). Older typography may use full-size characters, so the same visual distinction cannot be assumed in every edition.
12.5 The final r spellings
One convention selects ㇻ、ㇼ、ㇽ、ㇾ、ㇿ according to the preceding vowel /a, i, u, e, o/. Another uses ㇽ throughout. Satō adopts the fixed spelling as his default and allows the vowel-matched forms when needed Satō (2008: 16). Nakagawa traces the alternatives through Kindaichi's and Chiri Mashiho's writing Nakagawa (2024: 62–63).
The five written variants do not represent five distinct rhotic consonants. They concern how a writer represents the vowel-like release of final /r/. Its phonetic variation and its contrast with /r/ followed by a full vowel are discussed in Chapter 19 (The Rhotic /r/ and Coda-r).
12.6 Final n
Satō uses ordinary ン for final /n/, even though other final consonants take small kana Satō (2008: 16). A small katakana n is also encoded in Unicode as U+1B167, listed in the Small Kana Extension chart. The existence of that character does not make it part of every Ainu writing system.
12.7 Final h in Sakhalin material
The small h-series becomes relevant when reading Sakhalin forms with final /h/. Nakagawa describes Chiri Mashiho's use of vowel-matched h-kana for the consonant he transcribed x Nakagawa (2024: 63–64). This is a Sakhalin comparison. The presence of these characters in an Ainu kana table does not establish final /h/ as part of the ordinary Hokkaido inventory.
12.8 Final glides
The small letters ィ and ゥ can distinguish final /y/ and /w/ from the vowels /i/ and /u/. Chiri Mashiho used this distinction in his 1953 botanical dictionary, and Satō adopts it in his grammar Nakagawa (2024: 62–63); Satō (2008: 16). Other sources use full-size kana. The interpretation depends on the writing system and syllable structure.
12.9 How the conventions developed
Small kana for consonant endings were already used in Nagata Hōsei's 1891 place-name work. Later authors refined the representation of final /r/, glides, and accent. Nakagawa's survey also documents the orthographic work of Ainu writers, including Yamamoto Tasuke, Nabesawa Motozō, Sunazawa Kura, Kuzuno Tatsujirō, and Kayano Shigeru Nakagawa (2024: 61–66).
Akor Itak, published in 1994, provided a shared reference for teaching materials. Nakagawa stresses that publications invoking its conventions still vary in practice. He also explains their pedagogical purpose and the trade-offs involved in using familiar Japanese spelling habits Nakagawa (2024: 66–69). These choices are part of the history of Ainu literacy and teaching, described further in Chapter 4 (The Sociolinguistic Situation: Endangerment and Revitalization).
12.10 Converting between Latin and kana
Conversion requires knowledge of the source's conventions. In the Akor Itak system, ッ can represent both /t/ before another consonant and the first member of a doubled consonant. Nakagawa's example ミッポ can therefore correspond to mitpo or mippo “grandchild” Nakagawa (2024: 68). The kana string alone does not select between them.
A source spelling and a Latin analysis can be displayed together when the distinction matters. The original preserves what the edition prints; the analysis states how that spelling is being read. This is particularly useful for consonant sequences and older texts; see Chapter 13 (Reading Ainu Across Writing Systems).