Chapter 96Copular ne and Nominal Predication

96.1 Identity and classification with ne

The copula ne relates a subject to a nominal complement, expressing identity, membership in a class, or becoming something. Satō separates this construction from ordinary intransitive and transitive clauses Satō (2008: 20–21). Refsing likewise distinguishes nominal ne predication from existential and locative constructions with an/oka Refsing (1986: 145).

The nominal complement can itself be complex, as arikinne wen pe is here. A property verb can predicate directly without the copula. Nakagawa's hure covers both “be red” and “become red”; he rejects *hure ne for the simple change-of-color reading Nakagawa (2024: 119). See Chapter 37 (Property Predicates and the Adjective Analysis).

96.2 Subject forms without object indexing

The copula uses the A-series subject forms, including those which differ from the ordinary intransitive S series, but takes no object person index Refsing (1986: 145); Shibatani (1990: 20); Nakagawa (2024: 132). A nominal complement therefore differs from an indexed object of an ordinary transitive verb.

Nakagawa includes the copula as a special two-place type. Satō's later Role and Reference Grammar analysis distinguishes its two syntactic positions from a single semantic macrorole, the participant indexed on the verb ‹contested› Nakagawa (2024: 128, 132); Satō (2025: 373). These classifications preserve the same unusual person-marking behavior while analyzing its valency differently.

An independent personal pronoun can occur as the complement in a rare construction discussed by Satō. The absence of object indexing does not prohibit that nominal category Satō (2025: 373).

96.3 States, changes, and existence

Both a state and entry into that state can be expressed with ne. Refsing's kotan konnispa ne can mean being or becoming the village chief Refsing (1986: 145). Shibatani likewise gives a change reading for his chief example under a broader heading of copular sentences Shibatani (1990: 20). A change reading is not confined to a special added inchoative marker.

Nakagawa distinguishes verbal ne from a translative particle ne. The latter can combine with existential an. His examples of ne an include both becoming a girl in appearance and being a deity, so this sequence is not exclusively inchoative Nakagawa (2024: 300–301). He suggests that the particle developed from the copula ‹speculative› Nakagawa (2024: 300).

96.4 Negation and clause endings

The ordinary negative copular pattern places somo before ne, sometimes with ka. Satō contrasts this with the common lexical-verb pattern ending in ka somo ki Satō (2008: 22).

Satō describes ne ka somo ki as almost absent in use Satō (2008: 22). The choice of negative construction is examined in the negation chapters.

Endings such as ruwe ne and hawe ne have constructional meanings and distributions of their own. Nakagawa notes restrictions on their use as ordinary noun modifiers and distinguishes endings without ne Nakagawa (2024: 392–396). Chapter 95 (Oblique Expressions and Verbless Utterances) compares these with complete utterances consisting of a noun phrase and a final particle.

96.5 Attributive ne

Between two nominal expressions, ne can contribute an attributive relation. Refsing gives okkay ne po “boy,” mat ne unma “mare,” and sapa ne kur “chief,” describing ne as an attributive postposition in this use Refsing (1986: 161). Its classification here follows the larger nominal construction, distinct from the finite copular examples above.