Chapter 75Lexical Verb Pairs and Causative -ka

75.1 Related verbs and forming suffixes

Some intransitive and transitive verbs share a root but have different endings. Nakagawa analyzes the endings in the following pairs as verb-forming suffixes. In this account, the suffixes themselves have no independent arity: each combines with a root to form a verb Nakagawa (2024: 199, table 38).

Other pairs have a bare intransitive member: tuy / tuy-e “be cut / cut,” kay / kay-e “break / break something,” as / as-i “stand / stand something up,” and yak / yak-u “be crushed / crush” Nakagawa (2024: 199, table 39). The transitive vowel is partly patterned but is not fully predictable from the root's vowels Bugaeva (2014: 130–131).

75.2 Motion causatives with -ke

The ending -ke also forms transitive motion verbs. Its argument effect here differs from its role in the intransitive members of the preceding table Nakagawa (2024: 199, 201–202); Refsing (1986: 188–189).

The singular/plural motion pairs include ahun-ke / ahup-te, ran-ke / rap-te, san-ke / sap-te, and yan-ke / yap-te Satō (2008: 236–237). These patterns are lexical and regional. Nakagawa notes, for example, that Saru asinke has a restricted meaning and that the corresponding asipte is uncertain there Nakagawa (2024: 149, notes 13–14).

75.3 The distribution of -ka

Nakagawa lists -ka formations including retar-ka “whiten,” iunin-ka “cause pain,” us-ka “extinguish,” teyne-ka “wet,” and een-ka “sharpen,” with different dialect distributions Nakagawa (2024: 202, table 43). Satō's Chitose account groups -ka among causative endings while explicitly listing exceptions to suffix selection by the stem's final sound Satō (2008: 235–237).

The geographical generalization is disputed. Bugaeva describes stronger use of -ka in northeastern Hokkaido and Sakhalin and proposes replacement by the productive causative in southwestern varieties. Nakagawa finds no clear region in which -ka predominates Bugaeva (2014: 135–136, 144); Nakagawa (2024: 202) ‹contested›. Kobayashi reports both inter-dialect differences and alternatives within Saru, including nam-te / nam-ka Kobayashi (2015: 34).

75.4 Why the classifications differ

Bugaeva groups vowel endings, -ke, and -ka among nonproductive direct causatives. Her broader category relates their meanings and syntactic behavior to productive causation Bugaeva (2014: 130–134, 143–144). Kobayashi distinguishes vowel and -ke formation from causative -ka, citing regional substitution, local alternatives, and attachment to already derived bases Kobayashi (2015: 33–35) ‹contested›.

Kobayashi also analyzes ar-us-tek-ka and leaves the precise status of tek open Kobayashi (2015: 34). These formations support his distinction without establishing that every derived base accepts -ka.

75.5 Other formations with kar

Nakagawa records transitivizing formations in -kar, including peray-kar and cis-kar, and separately describes a verse-filling use Nakagawa (2024: 208). These uses need to be distinguished from free kar “make” and from a verb with an incorporated object. The forms and their restrictions are discussed in Chapter 60 (Verb Formation from Nouns and Verbal Roots).