A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Contents

Part I — The Language and Its Setting

• 1 Aims, Scope, and Design Philosophy of This Grammar The scope of the description, its dialect coverage, and how to read examples, citations, and evidence labels.
• 2 A Typological Profile of Hokkaido Ainu Constituent order, person marking, possession, incorporation, and other principal structures of Hokkaido Ainu.
• 3 The Ainu People, Their Homeland, and History The historical distribution of Ainu, the interpretation of its prehistory, and the social setting of the recorded language.
• 4 The Sociolinguistic Situation: Endangerment and Revitalization Language shift, community recording and teaching, institutional support, and the use of historical materials in revitalization.
• 5 The Genetic Position of Ainu: Isolate Status and Macro-Comparison Controversies Ainu’s external classification, relationships among its varieties, and the evidence used in reconstruction and contact studies.
• 6 The History of Ainu Language Description and Previous Research Early records, Ainu writers, dialect descriptions, and the development of grammatical research and published corpora.

Part II — Sources, Conventions, Glossing, and Orthography

• 7 Written Sources: Grammars, Dictionaries, and the Philological Record The descriptive grammars, dictionaries, and early records used as evidence, with their dialect coverage and limitations.
• 8 The Oral-Literature Corpus and Spoken-Language Data Oral-literature editions and recordings, their speakers and genres, and the limits of the surviving documentary record.
• 9 The Dialect Sample and the Corpus-Quantification Method Dialect attribution, the scope of comparisons, and the sampling choices needed to interpret corpus evidence.
• 10 Interlinear Glossing, Abbreviations, and Citation Conventions How to read interlinear examples, grammatical labels, dialect tags, citations, and evidence grades.
• 11 The Latin Phonemic Transcription Latin letter values, accent and boundary marks, and differences among phonemic transcriptions.
• 12 Katakana Orthography and the Extended Small-Kana Codas Katakana conventions for Ainu syllables, variation in final-consonant spelling, and the interpretation of older sources.
• 13 Reading Ainu Across Writing Systems How source spellings, pronunciation, and grammatical analysis relate when reading Ainu in different writing systems.
• 14 Historical Orthographies and the Batchelor Tradition Older Latin spelling conventions, the treatment of final r, and the interpretation of historical texts.
• 15 Orthographic Standardization and the Word-Division Problem Variation in Ainu writing, person-marker notation, word division, and the relationship between spelling and analysis.

Part III — Segmental Phonetics, Phonology, and Phonotactics

• 16 The Consonant Inventory and Its Phonetic Realization The consonant inventory, its positional realizations, and differences among speakers and descriptive analyses.
• 17 The Vowel Inventory and Vowel Realization The five vowels, phonetic duration and devoicing, with Sakhalin vowel length as a separate comparison.
• 18 /s/ and the s ~ š Palatalization Alternation Palatalization of /s/ in syllable onsets, codas, and connected speech, with the dialect limits of each description.
• 19 The Rhotic /r/ and Coda-r Realizations of /r/, the vowel-like release of final /r/, and grammatical evidence for distinguishing final /r/ from /rV/.
• 20 Glottal Stops and the Distribution of /h/ Glottal closure, competing phoneme and boundary analyses, and the distribution of /h/ in Hokkaido and Sakhalin.
• 21 Syllable Structure, Phonotactics, and Word-Edge Constraints Open and closed syllables, permitted codas, resyllabification, and restrictions within roots and across boundaries.
• 22 Glides, Vowel Hiatus, and the Diphthong Question Final /y/ and /w/ as codas, diphthong terminology, and competing analyses of glides between vowels.

Part IV — Prosody and the Pitch-Accent System

• 23 The Pitch-Accent Placement Rule and the Accented/Accentless Dialect Split Default accent placement, lexical exceptions, and the differences among Saru-type, Yakumo-type, and unaccented varieties.
• 24 The Prosodic Unit and the Accent-versus-Tone Analysis Rising accent kernels, syllable weight, pitch contours, and the scope of phonological analyses across dialects.
• 25 Lexical/Contrastive Accent and Minimal Pairs Published accent-only minimal pairs, lexical exceptions to default placement, and the limits of functional-load claims.
• 26 Accent in Compounds and under Affixation and Cliticization Accent retention and reassignment in compounds, derivatives, and person-marked forms, with lexical exceptions and competing structural analyses.
• 27 Phrasal and Utterance Intonation Saru, Shizunai, and Tokachi intonation descriptions, including rising and non-rising questions, exclamations, and phrase boundaries.

Part V — Morphophonology and Sandhi

• 28 Assimilation and Cluster Simplification: Coda /r/, Nasals, and Clusters Changes involving final /r/ and /n/, nasal place assimilation, particle-specific alternations, and the roles of pauses and sentence boundaries.
• 29 Glide Epenthesis and Vowel-Hiatus Resolution Glide insertion, vowel weakening, glottal realization, and contraction, with their morphological conditions and dialect differences.
• 30 Citation Forms and Morphophonological Alternations Final-consonant pronunciation, prefix contraction, possessive morphology, and lexical history, with separate conditions for each pattern.
• 31 Person Markers: Contraction, Accent, and Suffix Boundaries Dialect-specific person-prefix contraction, initial-vowel weakening, accent behavior, and pronunciation at person-suffix boundaries.
• 32 Reduplication and Phonological Alternations Root, partial, and whole-stem reduplication, their lexical restrictions, and documented consonant and boundary effects.

Part VI — Word Classes and Nominal Morphology

• 33 Word Classes and Their Diagnostics The major classification schemes and their grammatical diagnostics, including person marking, dependence, modification, and disputed category boundaries.
• 34 Nominal Subclasses and Dependence Common nouns, locative nouns, pronouns, and formal nouns, compared through possession, independence, modification, and grammatical location.
• 35 Formal Nouns and Nominalizing Constructions Dependent nominal heads, their modifiers, and the competing analyses of relative, complement, and evidential uses.
• 36 Verb Classes, Arguments, and Person Marking Verb subclasses defined through person marking and argument structure, including zero-argument predicates, locative objects, copular complements, and derived higher-valency forms.
• 37 Property Predicates and the Adjective Analysis The verbal morphology and syntax of property predicates, their state and change readings, and the modern and historical classification debates.
• 38 Diminutive and Affective Noun Formation The suffix -po, lexicalized formations, regional okkaypo meanings, and historical Horobetsu kinship uses.
• 39 Nominal Compounds and Their Structure Compound diagnostics, six documented formation patterns, nominal conversion, and lexicalization at the phrase boundary.
• 40 Noun Formation from Verbs and Nouns Nominalizing forms, lexical person-shaped prefixes, conversion, and the relationship between lexical nouns and clause-level constructions.
• 41 Nominal Number and Utar Number-neutral nouns, plural and associative utar, lexical plurals, and source differences over animacy and possession.
• 42 Noun-Phrase Structure Modifiers, demonstratives, numerals, locative expressions, possession, and coordination, with attributed differences in analysis.

Part VII — Possession and the Affiliative System

• 43 Possessive Constructions and Alienability Possession with kor and affiliative nouns, lexical and dialect variation, and the limits of semantic classifications.
• 44 Concept, Affiliative, and Personal Forms Possessive noun forms, short and long variants, person marking, and the interpretation of expressed and unspecified possessors.
• 45 Affiliative Suffix Patterns Phonological conditions, lexical suffix classes, exceptional forms, and attributed historical analyses of possessive morphology.
• 46 Adnominal Possession and Double Marking Possessor phrases, head marking, kor with affiliative nouns, classifier verbs, and nested possessive relations.
• 47 Possessors in Noun Incorporation Possessor-to-subject incorporation, its person marking, and the different restrictions on object incorporation.
• 48 Kinship, Address, and Possession Lexical and dialect differences in kinship possession, reference and address, honorific fourth person, and narrative possession.

Part VIII — Pronouns, Demonstratives, Postpositions, and Numerals

• 49 Independent Personal Pronouns Dialect-specific pronoun paradigms, emphasis and contrast, third-person expressions, and the boundary between pronouns and possessed group nouns.
• 50 Demonstratives and Reference Saru demonstrative modifiers, spatial and discourse reference, formal-noun combinations, and regional differences.
• 51 Interrogative and Indefinite Expressions Question-word classes, their dialect forms and sentence patterns, and their relationship to indefinite expressions.
• 52 Relational Nouns, Spatial Forms, and Quasi-Incorporation Locative noun classes, person marking, basic and long forms, spatial meanings, and Satō’s quasi-incorporation analysis of or.
• 53 Place Particles and Motion Expressions Location, direction, origin, area, and route constructions, their dialect differences, and their relationship to postposed adverbs and translative ne.
• 54 Numeral Forms and Counting Systems Adnominal, nominal, and enumeration forms, vigesimal composition, overcounting, and regional decimal systems.
• 55 Numeral Syntax, Ordinals, and Quantity Numeral position and independent use, compound counts, classifier analyses, ordinal expressions, and the interaction of quantity with number.

Part IX — The Verb: Structure, Transitivity, and Verbal Number

• 56 The Verb Word and Its Boundaries Source-specific derivational templates, argument structure, number morphology, person zones, and the distinction between a verb word and quasi-incorporation.
• 57 Transitivity and Valency Classes Argument frames, ambient and experienced states, locative objects, copular person marking, higher valency, and competing analyses of arity.
• 58 Verbal Number and Stem Alternation Lexical number pairs, participant and event number, dialect forms, additional pa and ci, and the effects of respect and narrative person.
• 59 Ki, Support Constructions, and Pro-Verbs Lexical, formal, assertive, poetic, and referential uses of ki, with their person-marking patterns and dialect differences.
• 60 Verb Formation from Nouns and Verbal Roots Lexicalized nominal formations, bound roots, transitivity pairs, different uses of kar, and intensive no.
• 61 Adverbial and Intensive No Manner formation, lexical restrictions, unsuffixed adverbs, clause-linking no, and distinct intensive verbal forms.

Part X — The Personal-Affix System and Alignment

• 62 Person Marking and Argument Roles Basic S, A, and O paradigms, person-conditioned alignment, interaction forms, zero third person, and the morphological status of person markers.
• 63 First- and Second-Person Singular Subject and object forms, regional contraction, neutral second-person alignment, and the interaction paradigm.
• 64 First-Person Plural and Clusivity Exclusive and inclusive reference, subject and object forms, narrative uses, and dialect-specific analyses of group reference.
• 65 Eci and Person Interactions Second-plural marking, the Saru/Chitose first-to-second portmanteau, reverse interactions, and regional and literary alternatives.
• 66 Object Indexing and Three-Place Verbs The object series, recipient and theme indexing, third-person zero, and the distinction between person indexes and semantic arguments.
• 67 Fourth-Person Forms and Their Uses Inclusive, indefinite, honorific, narrative, and quoted-speaker reference, with dialect differences in form and number and competing semantic analyses.
• 68 Fourth Person in Respectful Address Honorific person forms, verbal number, speaker and family differences, regional alternatives, and the distinction from narrative and quoted-speaker uses.
• 69 Person-Marker Order and Stem Boundaries Prefix sequences, portmanteaux, prefix–suffix combinations, additional number marking, and evidence for separable person forms.
• 70 Person and Verbal Number Participant number, comitative grouping, numeral constructions, fourth-person mismatches, and additional plural morphology.
• 71 Intransitive Subjects and Semantic Roles Subject marking of agents, patients, and experiencers, lexical classes in incorporation, and the difference between valency and person-conditioned alignment.
• 72 Mixed Alignment and Hierarchical Analyses The Hokkaido person-conditioned patterns, interaction forms, the Sakhalin inverse proposal, and the separate questions raised by lexical classes and voice.

Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation

• 73 Valency and Voice Constructions Argument structure, person-index diagnostics, principal derivational effects, lexical formation, and competing voice analyses.
• 74 The Productive Causative -re, -te, and -e Suffix forms, causee marking, direct and indirect causation, permissive and coercive readings, lexical restrictions, and a Horobetsu clause-linkage proposal.
• 75 Lexical Verb Pairs and Causative -ka Root-based forming suffixes, motion causatives, regional -ka variation, derived bases, and competing classifications of causative morphology.
• 76 Causees and Multiple Causative Layers Causee objects, retained themes, different analyses of double causation, four-participant textual evidence, and restrictions on causee backgrounding.
• 77 Indefinite Causative -yar and -ar Valency-retaining causation, retained objects, oblique causees, conflicting suffix distributions, and older plural and Ishikari analyses.
• 78 Applicative Constructions and Their Arguments The three applicative prefixes, changes in argument structure and person marking, overlapping semantic roles, and source-specific classifications.
• 79 The e- Applicative Instrument, purpose, content, and place relations, with Nakagawa’s four constructional subtypes and Bugaeva’s lexical classification.
• 80 The ko- Applicative Directed and comitative relations, spatial and personal goals, source objects, instrumental uses, and incorporation.
• 81 The o- Applicative Applied places, motion goals, contrasts with ko-, and differing source descriptions of source and instrumental meanings.
• 82 Multiple Applicatives, Incorporation, and Relative Clauses Documented applicative combinations, noun incorporation and prefix order, and relative clauses with applied objects or retained role markers.
• 83 Antipassive and Unspecified-Object i- Object backgrounding, person marking, conventional activities, interaction with applicatives, lexical exceptions, and competing historical accounts.
• 84 Reflexive yay- and Its Extensions Participant identity, intentionality and direct-reflexive analyses, reflexive possession, lexical extensions, and combinations with si-.
• 85 Reflexive si- in Verbal and Spatial Constructions Bodily motion and change, indirect reflexivity, causatives and pretending, locative coreference, and proposed historical developments.
• 86 Reciprocal u- and Joint Participation Canonical and indirect reciprocals, object-oriented constructions, incorporated possessors, and the distinction between reciprocal and sociative forms.
• 87 Middle ci- and the Passive Analysis Middle and resultative descriptions, person restrictions, agent phrases, competing analyses of passive patients, and anticausative meanings.
• 88 Object Noun Incorporation Wordhood and person diagnostics, remaining objects, generic reference, incorporated compound nouns, two-object formations, and possession restrictions.
• 89 Subject Incorporation and External Possessors Natural-phenomenon predicates, possessed stems with external subjects, natural-force actors, changes in grammatical relation, and competing restrictions.
• 90 Incorporation, Quasi-Incorporation, and Word Structure Applicative-related incorporation, affix order, Tamura’s 連他動詞, Satō’s lexical quasi-incorporation, Nakagawa’s one-word and two-word forms, and the theoretical debates.
• 91 Manner Compounds and Adverbial Incorporation Property-verb components, derived adverbs, lexicalized mono, temporal nouns, and source disagreements over productivity.

Part XII — The Simple Clause and Nonverbal Predication

• 92 Constituent Order and the Verb-Final Clause Preverbal noun phrases and adverbials, differing accounts of participant order, head-final phrases, clause endings, and later specifications with ki.
• 93 Argument Realization and Person Indexing Argument count, person forms, omitted noun phrases, unindexed themes, incorporation, and locative role information.
• 94 Noun Phrases and Pronominal-Argument Analyses Head marking, Satō’s layered clause analysis, unindexed core arguments, shared argumenthood, and the limits of word-order and quantifier evidence.
• 95 Oblique Expressions and Verbless Utterances Locative objects and adjuncts, complete noun-phrase utterances, echo questions, formal-noun endings, and ambient predicate boundaries.
• 96 Copular ne and Nominal Predication Identity and classification, subject marking without object indexes, syntactic and semantic valency, state and change readings, negation, and attributive ne.
• 97 Existential and Locational Predicates Existence, personal location, regional plural forms, narrative number, seasonal change, continuation, and lexical absence.
• 98 Predicative Possession Possessor and possessee subjects, kor and existential constructions, kinship and affiliation, source-specific corpus findings, incorporation, and lack.
• 99 Property Predicates Direct predication and person marking, state and change readings, manner and auxiliary uses, ambient conditions, and the adjective debate.
• 100 Copular Negation and Clause Endings Negative nominal predicates, evidential endings, polar and content questions, scope, ordering restrictions, and competing structural analyses.

Part XIII — Nominalization, Relativization, and Complementation

• 101 P and Pe: Participants, Content, and Clause Endings Sound-conditioned forms, phrase scope, relative participants, instrumental heads, content nominalization, human reference, and normative and linking uses.
• 102 Lexical Heads and Formal-Noun Nominalization Hi and place/time relations, sensory complements, conventional words and relative phrases, Tokachi independent endings, and Horobetsu adverbial clauses.
• 103 Relative Clauses and Accessible Relations Prenominal heads, argument roles, retained oblique relations, locative and possessive morphology, source qualifications, and comparison equivalents.
• 104 General Heads, Gapless Clauses, and Internal-Head Analyses Overt light heads, complement relations, and Dal Corso’s source-limited incorporation and internally headed relative proposals.
• 105 Quotation, Logophoric Speech, and Indirect Reports Quoted person reference, the syntactic reassessment of logophoric speech, indirect content, ordering flexibility, and regional predicate selection.
• 106 Nominalized Complements and Complex Predicates Complement functions, sensory content, overt and zero nominalization, bare verb and auxiliary constructions, and participant reference.
• 107 Kuni, Indirect Complements, and Purpose Clauses Prospective and inferential content, kunak and yak, reported instructions with causatives, kunine purpose linkage, and nominal expressions.

Part XIV — Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Modality

• 108 Time, Aspect, Modality, and Evidentiality Contextual time reference, construction types, competing a and aan analyses, existential combinations, participant identity, and dialect restrictions.
• 109 Time Reference Without Obligatory Tense Contextual event time, speech-time and narrative reference points, prospective expressions, and the interpretation of unmarked predicates.
• 110 Existential Aspect: Kor An and Wa An Activities, habits, resulting states, person and number controllers, lexical interpretation, negative constructions, and regional limits.
• 111 A, Rok, and Aan: Earlier Situations and Discovery Contextual contrasts, participant number, sustained and repeated events, retrospective discovery, regional forms, and competing aspectual analyses.
• 112 Kane An, Regional Continuatives, and Appearance Ongoing and resulting states, degree and emphasis, Shizunai and Samani patterns, Tokachi and Ishikari forms, and distinct evidential constructions.
• 113 Completion, Repetition, and Event Phases Finishing and disappearance, person marking on supplementary verbs, nisa, brief actions, ranke, contextual beginnings, and persistent results.
• 114 Commands, Requests, and Prohibitions Direct imperative morphology, plural and polite forms, requests and final particles, indirect directives, and regional prohibitive expressions.
• 115 Invitations, Deliberation, and Wishes Inclusive and other-person ro constructions, regional endings, Shizunai na, self-directed so, and wishes with ta and oka.
• 116 Desire, Rusuy, and Compound Predicates Separate auxiliaries and lexical compounds, person placement, the desirer and action participant, impending feelings, and competing incorporation analyses.
• 117 Ability and Inability Easkay and eaykap, person-marked lexical uses, compounds, ka, dialect and register limits, and more specific obstacles to action.
• 118 Necessity, Advice, and Permission Easirki, obligation and expectation with kuni, conditional advice and permission, and ordinary person marking in indirect directives.
• 119 Conjecture, Intention, and Prospective Events Contextual nankor, kusu ne and regional kusu ki, impending events, competing oasi analyses, seeming, circumlocution, and conditional context.

Part XV — Evidentiality and Mirativity

• 120 Formal Nouns and Evidential Constructions The four noun families, internal complements and clause endings, regional frames, competing semantic accounts, negation, and construction-specific ordering.
• 121 Ruwe: Fact, Knowledge, and Clause Endings Personal circumstances and explanations, nominal morphology, questions and replies, knowledge-based analyses, negation, and lexical ruwe an.
• 122 Siri: Visible Appearance and Ongoing Situations Appearance and identity, descriptions of the speaker’s conduct, visual inference, aspectual and lexical uses, and Tokachi predication restrictions.
• 123 Hawe: Voice, Wording, and Reports The speaker’s own wording, immediate reports, questions about meaningful cries, nominal morphology, and hawe as in inference and reported discourse.
• 124 Humi: Sensation and Internal Experience Bodily and emotional experience, humi ne continuations, sound-based questions, Tokachi and Shizunai evidence, and the absence of a sensation.
• 125 Evidential Combinations, Discovery, and Structural Change Exclamation and aan, double evidentials, construction-specific ordering, competing constituency analyses, grammaticalization proposals, and regional endings.

Part XVI — Negation

• 126 Clausal Negation with Somo Preverbal and postverbal negatives, ka and the somo ki analysis, nominal predicates, evidential scope, regional forms, and construction-specific limits.
• 127 Absence and Lack: Isam and Sak Negative existential and possessive predicates, subject and object contrasts, lexical alternatives, figurative completion, and an attributed historical proposal.
• 128 Inability, Inexperience, and Lack of Knowledge Lexical contrasts, independent and auxiliary uses, capacity and circumstances, and dialect and register restrictions.
• 129 Indefinite Expressions and Negation Affirmative and negative readings, interrogative and indefinite bases, variable ka meanings, free choice, and the placement of negation.
• 130 Prohibitions with Iteki and Related Forms Bare imperative and person-marked directives, regional prohibitives, placement, plural and polite address, and advisory expressions.

Part XVII — Clause Linkage and Adverbial Subordination

• 131 Clause Linkage and Its Analyses Unchanged verb forms, connective categories, competing structural accounts, participant reference, and the principal linking relations.
• 132 Wa, Connected Events, and Ayne Sequence, causation, manner and result states, shared and different subjects, duration with ayne, and source-specific negative and phonological patterns.
• 133 Hine, Akusu, and Narrative Progression Successive information, related developments, regional and genre preferences, participant changes, and attributed narrative-boundary analyses.
• 134 Kor: Simultaneity, Habits, and Conditions Overlapping situations with shared or different subjects, continuative constructions, habitual and factual uses, regional forms, and historical proposals.
• 135 Conditional, Temporal, and Concessive Constructions Premises with yakun, evaluation with yak, regional ciki and cik uses, factual sequences, wishes, and hypothetical or realized concessions.
• 136 Reasons, Purposes, and Desired Outcomes Kusu, wa kusu, hi kusu, kunine, participant relations, independent connective uses, and regional functions.
• 137 Manner, Appearance, Degree, and Comparison No and its word-class boundary, koraci, source-specific appearance analyses, extent clauses, and degree-adjunct relativization.
• 138 Narrative Continuation and Repetition Connective formal nouns, orowa expressions, recapitulation and reference, and attributed analyses of narrative boundaries.

Part XVIII — Information Structure, Sentence-Final Particles, and Minor Classes

• 139 Reference Tracking and Omitted Expressions Contextual recovery, third-person ambiguity, fourth-person reference, and continuity across linked clauses.
• 140 Topics and Anakne Topic phrases and grammatical roles, repeated topics, contrasts, and the source-specific effects of related particles.
• 141 Nominalization and Focus Relative heads, content nominalization, copular identification, naming, and the limits of an exhaustive cleft analysis.
• 142 Word Order in Context Published participant orders, topic placement, role interpretation, fronted adjuncts, and construction-specific ordering limits.
• 143 Sentence-Final Particles and Interaction Requests, suggestions, response-seeking endings, emphatic combinations, recollection, and source-specific inventories.
• 144 Questions and Interrogative Particles Polar and content questions, intonation, nominal endings, ya and he, embedded questions, replies, and dialect differences.
• 145 Gender, Address, and Speech Conventions Honorific address, interjections, changing greeting conventions, regional performance roles, and limits of the conversational record.
• 146 Adverbs, Degree, and Comparison Basic, derived, and converted adverbs, antecedents of postpositional forms, directional constructions, degree comparison, and iyotta.
• 147 Connective Expressions in Discourse The orowa family, connective placement and pauses, rapok constructions, and the distinction from nominal coordination.
• 148 Interjections and Mimetic Formations Responses and calls, regional greetings, interjection morphology and verbal exceptions, sound imitation, and restricted mimetic formations.

Part XIX — Discourse and the Grammar of Oral Literature

• 149 Oral-Literary Genres and Their Regional Names Functional classifications, the four-way Chitose comparison, performance features, overlapping regional labels, and narrative perspective.
• 150 Narrative Person and Reported Speech Character perspective, self-quotation, other-speaker reports, ordinary-person alternatives, mixed narration, and competing syntactic and historical accounts.
• 151 Sakehe, Refrains, and Verse Structure Refrain placement and meaning, changing voices, syllable counts, and the metrical patterns reported for named performances.
• 152 Parallelism, Couplets, and Paired Expressions Paired numbers, contrasting words, repeated structures, and their use in prose as well as verse.
• 153 Poetic and Elevated Language Special vocabulary, metrical material, applicative phrasing, and variation within elevated registers.
• 154 Respectful, Ritual, and Avoidance Registers Regional honorific address, person and naming in prayer, incantations, and documented mountain and offshore vocabulary.
• 155 Narrative Aspect and Evidentiality Narrator and character perspectives, aspect at scene changes, double evidentials, and the scope of published genre comparisons.

Part XX — Diachrony, Reconstruction, and Dialectology

• 156 Proto-Ainu Reconstruction: Segments and Prosody Documented correspondences, competing consonant and vowel reconstructions, lexical alternatives, and disputed histories of length and accent.
• 157 Sakhalin Final Consonants and Vowel Length Final-stop correspondences, suffix alternations, added vowels after r, and the competing histories of length and accent.
• 158 Internal Reconstruction and Grammaticalization Proposed lexical sources of grammatical forms, the expansion of possessive kor, person and nominalization histories, and limits of segmentation.
• 159 Dialect Classification and Dialectometry The distinct survey samples, lexical similarity measures, regional groupings, and limits of recent quantitative classifications.
• 160 Hokkaido Dialect Variation in Sound and Grammar Accent systems, lexical sound correspondences, person and verbal number, and regional connective and aspectual forms.
• 161 Lexical Geography and Survey History Overlapping distributions of mouth terms, interrogatives, and kinship vocabulary, with competing histories and changing survey coverage.
• 162 Sakhalin and Northern Kuril Comparisons Documentary scope, Sakhalin sound and grammatical contrasts, possession, number, person, numerals, and Northern Kuril evidence.

Part XXI — Language Contact and the Lexicon

• 163 Japanese Loans and Their Adaptation Documented borrowings, historical donor pronunciation, uncertain details, proposed dating, and continued lexical adaptation.
• 164 Ainu Loans and Place Names in Japanese Borrowed words, regional river terminology, documented place-name explanations, and qualified plant-name reconstructions.
• 165 Northern Contact and Borrowing Sakhalin contact networks, item-specific loan directions, Japanese and continental routes, and possible grammatical convergence.
• 166 Distant Comparison and Early Contact External-affiliation proposals, disputed early Japanese contact, and the evidential limits of archaeological and linguistic histories.
• 167 Lexical Fields as Grammatical Evidence Plant, body-part, and weather expressions illustrating possession, number, predication, and regional lexical meanings.

Part XXII — Glossed Texts

• 168 A Glossed Passage from a Chitose Prose Tale A continuous advice sentence from Shirasawa Nabe’s 1993 Pananpe–Penanpe performance, with four tiers and generic-person analysis.
• 169 Glossed Openings from Abuta and Horobetsu Verse Four-tier excerpts comparing fourth-person and exclusive-plural narration, with source line boundaries and metrical material explained.
• 170 A Glossed Ritual Prayer Opening An invocation and worship statement from Motozō Nabesawa’s lower Saru prayer, with person, applicatives, and the formal ending analyzed.
• 171 A Glossed Asahikawa Teaching Conversation A wellbeing and water-request exchange attributed to Sugimura Fusa and Kawamura Tome in the provisional Akor Itak study transcript.
• 172 A Glossed Sakhalin Teaching Dialogue Murasaki’s bowl dialogue with four tiers, contrasting possessive constructions and the use of final particles in statements and questions.

Part XXIII — Reference Apparatus (Back Matter)

• 173 Glossary of Grammatical Terms English definitions and chapter links for argument structure, person, word classes, derivation, time, evidence, sound structure, and change.
• 174 Abbreviations and Glossing Conventions The example tiers, boundary notation, source-label differences, current gloss inventory, and dialect tags.
• 175 References and Bibliography Primary materials, grammatical studies, and comparative works, with original titles, publication details, and intermediary-source conventions.
• 176 Index of Chapter and Section Topics Alphabetical navigation by chapter and section title, with links to the relevant discussions.
• 177 Index of Grammatical Forms and Constructions Selected person forms, nominal morphology, derived predicates, clause constructions, and discourse expressions linked to their analyses.
• 178 Index of Examples by Source and Dialect Displayed example occurrences grouped by cited source and supplied dialect label, with provenance and construction status kept distinct.

Back matter

• Abbreviations and conventions
• References