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Tamura 1996

Tamura Suzuko 田村すゞ子 (1996). アイヌ語沙流方言辞典[The Ainu–Japanese dictionary: Saru dialect]. Sōfūkan 草風館, Tokyo.

db.aynu.org/1996-tamura primary-data hokkaido

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1. The object of description is the language's phonological, morphological, morphosyntactic, and discourse structure as documented across the Hokkaido dialect cluster — principally Saru, Chitose, Shizunai, Tokachi, Horobetsu, Mukawa, and Ishikari — drawing on the full range of prior scholarship from Kindaichi and Chiri through the modern reference grammars of Tamura ; , Refsing , Shibatani , Satō , Bugaeva , and Nakagawa . no page Aims, Scope, and Design Philosophy of This Grammar
2. Tamura's Saru dictionary and grammar monograph remain the central data source for that dialect ; . no page Aims, Scope, and Design Philosophy of This Grammar
3. Her Saru-dialect dictionary remains the most comprehensive single-dialect Ainu dictionary and is used throughout this grammar as a primary lexical resource. no page The History of Ainu Language Description and Previous Research
4. Structural claims that rely on it alone are cross-checked against Satō and Nakagawa; the Saru dictionary (see below) provides the primary-data complement. no page Written Sources: Grammars, Dictionaries, and the Philological Record
5. is the comprehensive Ainu–Japanese dictionary of the Saru dialect. no page Written Sources: Grammars, Dictionaries, and the Philological Record
6. Both carry the reported status in this grammar; they are accessible through the db.aynu.org catalogue, and their evidence is cross-checked against and the spoken corpus where possible. no page Written Sources: Grammars, Dictionaries, and the Philological Record
7. Tamura Suzuko's contemporaneous field recordings in Biratori (principally 平賀サダモ and others) underlie her Saru dictionary and the folktale and lyric texts from which Dal Corso and Hirosawa draw evidential examples ; . no page The Oral-Literature Corpus and Spoken-Language Data
8. Prose folktales use a more conversational register with dense quotative marking and a characteristically one-directional, low-variation intonation that Tamura distinguishes from the rising pattern of conversational interaction (nukopoli, aynu-corpora Discord 2024; ). no page The Oral-Literature Corpus and Spoken-Language Data
9. Saru is the most extensively documented Hokkaido dialect: Tamura's 1996 dictionary supplies a dense lexical record; Nakagawa's annotated oral-literature text collections from Nibutani and Biratori narrators give a genre-diverse discourse corpus ; and Nakagawa's 2024 grammar takes Saru as the default Hokkaido reference throughout . no page The Dialect Sample and the Corpus-Quantification Method
10. A corpus example is attributed to the edition (, , ) or to the narrator and archive slot directly. no page Interlinear Glossing, Abbreviations, and Citation Conventions
11. This transcription is the standard now used in Hokkaido Ainu descriptive linguistics and in the major reference works that underpin this grammar: , , , and . no page The Latin Phonemic Transcription
12. Most reference works in the literature — including , , and — do not mark accent on forms cited in grammatical discussion, and the present grammar follows that tradition in its non-prosodic chapters. no page The Latin Phonemic Transcription
13. The table below maps this grammar's graphemes to the IPA and to the conventions used in the four main reference works: Tamura , Satō , Nakagawa , and the Handbook of the Ainu Language . no page The Latin Phonemic Transcription
14. The Latin phonemic transcription developed by the twentieth-century descriptive tradition is the primary script of the major reference grammars ; ; and of modern corpus annotation. no page Cyrillic and Multi-Script Rendering
15. Tamura's Saru dictionary and the grammars that followed — Refsing on Shizunai , Satō's foundational description , Bugaeva on southern Hokkaido , and Nakagawa's extensive grammar — share the same twelve-consonant, five-vowel phonemic framework: /p t k c s m n r w y h/ and /a i u e o/, each with a single Roman-letter correspondent. no page Orthographic Standardization and the Word-Division Problem
16. Tamura's practice is etymological: where the underlying morpheme is recoverable from alternations, the historical form is written; where it cannot be determined, she used a macron-n (n̄) as a neutral symbol . no page Orthographic Standardization and the Word-Division Problem
17. Tamura's romanization — and the practice of many scholars working on Saru — inserts an explicit w or y between a vowel-final and a vowel-initial element: hence uwepeker (not uepeker) and iyomante (not iomante) . no page Orthographic Standardization and the Word-Division Problem
18. The frequency figures in this section are drawn from a syllable count over the headwords of three dictionaries of southern Hokkaido dialects: Tamura's Saru dictionary , Nakagawa's Chitose dictionary , and Kayano's Saru (Nibutani) dictionary . no page Syllable Structure, Phonotactics, and Word-Edge Constraints
19. The plural suffix -pa and the affiliative (possessed) suffix -hV — realizing as -hi, -he, -ha etc. according to the vowel-copy rule — are both accent-neutral: the stem's placement-rule accent survives into the suffixed form without adjustment ; . no page Accent in Compounds and under Affixation and Cliticization
20. ruwe, siri, hawe, and humi are the affiliative forms of four sensory nouns and constitute the formal-noun stratum of the evidential system ; . s.v. ruwe, siri The Formal / Defective Noun Set (ruwe, hawe, siri, humi, hi, pe, kur)
21. A morphological point distinguishes evidential use from the full lexical affiliative: the lexical form may carry an additional extension (ruwehe, humihi), whereas the evidential formal noun blocks it — *ruwehe ne is ungrammatical as the inferential evidential . s.v. ruwe The Formal / Defective Noun Set (ruwe, hawe, siri, humi, hi, pe, kur)
22. The lexical noun denotes a physical trace; its affiliative form ruwe 'the trace of —' extends to any trace including an epistemic one; clause-final [clause] ruwe ne then asserts the clause content as established fact ; . s.v. ruwe The Formal / Defective Noun Set (ruwe, hawe, siri, humi, hi, pe, kur)
23. 'food' is the canonical illustration: synchronically a common noun listed as a dictionary headword , its morphological shape is a=e-p — the indefinite fourth-person agent a=, the transitive verb , and the nominalizer — 'that which one eats'. s.v. aep Deverbal and Denominal Noun Derivation (Lexical Nominalizer Morphology)
24. No primary source states the etymology directly; Tamura's Saru dictionary lists cep without internal analysis . s.v. cep Deverbal and Denominal Noun Derivation (Lexical Nominalizer Morphology)
25. The same possessed-noun morphology underlies all four members of the Hokkaido evidential set ; . s.v. ru, sir, hum, haw Deverbal and Denominal Noun Derivation (Lexical Nominalizer Morphology)
26. Each short form (ruwe, siri, humi, hawe) is the form that heads the evidential construction; the corresponding long forms (ruwehe, sirihi, humihi, hawehe) exist as ordinary lexical possessed nouns but are blocked from the evidential slot — Tamura marks this explicitly for each item . s.v. ruwe Deverbal and Denominal Noun Derivation (Lexical Nominalizer Morphology)
27. Tamura's Saru lexicon lists approximately fifty-seven such nouns, distributed across people (24), places and environment (11), food and drink (7), tools and ritual objects (7), domestic animals (1), and human attributes (7); wild animals and plants, owned by no one in the Ainu world, are largely absent ; . no page Adnominal Possession: Double Marking and the Appositive Construction
28. ; ; s.v. or, ka, sam, tum, corpok, soy, kotor Relational and Spatial (Locative) Nouns and Their Possessed Forms
29. The string orke carries two readings that have to be sorted contextually, and Tamura's Saru dictionary documents both . s.v. arikikpa, cikuni, cikosomokur koyaykatanu Relational and Spatial (Locative) Nouns and Their Possessed Forms
30. The -V set is closed and non-productive; no new pairs of this type are formed, and the members are listed separately in the dictionaries . no page The Transitivizer -ka and Lexical Valency Pairs
31. Tamura's Saru dictionary enters aoypep 'food vessel' without morphological decomposition ; the proposed analysis is consistent with the semantic range of o- but is not established in the peer-reviewed sources ‹contested›. no page The o- Applicative
32. The classic pair is → 'pop up by swimming (volitionally)' versus 'float up of itself', attributed to Kindaichi (1931: 149, reported by ) and . 622 The Reflexive-Possessive si- and the yay-/si- Division
33. Tamura defines uitaknu as ‘listen to what each other says; agree/obey’ and explicitly segments it as u-itak-nu . 808 The Reciprocal u-
34. Similarly, the transitive yields si-turi 'stretch, lie down (of itself)', which Tamura analyses as a pure intransitivizing derivation . 622 Middle, Anticausative, and the (Non-)Passive Question
35. Ainu has no adjective or adverb class distinct from the verb: property concepts are stative intransitive verbs — , , ; . no page Adverbial (Manner) Incorporation and the Property-Verb Question
36. Tamura's Saru dictionary records the source nouns, their regular possessed forms, and the evidential formal nouns derived from them . s.v. ru, sir, haw, hum, ruwe, siri, hawe, humi The Nominalization-plus-Copula Evidential Schema
37. The regular possessed forms of the source nouns may carry an additional ending — ruwe(he), humi(hi) — but the evidential formal nouns block this extension: *ruwehe and *humihi are ungrammatical in the evidential function . s.v. ruwe, humi The Nominalization-plus-Copula Evidential Schema
38. Whether the concept form (sir, haw) and the corresponding possessed form carry a usage or nuance difference is explicitly left unresolved in Tamura's dictionary ‹speculative›. s.v. sir The Nominalization-plus-Copula Evidential Schema
39. In Tamura's Saru dictionary the ordinary possessed form is ruwe(he) ‘the track that — passed along, the path made by —’s passing’, and the evidential formal noun is analysed as ru-e, the noun plus a possessive ending . s.v. ru, ruwe ruwe ne — the Inferential / Visual-Trace Evidential
40. A subtle point distinguishes the evidential from the full noun: the lexical possessed forms may carry an extra ending (ruwehe, humihi), whereas the evidential formal nouns block it (*ruwehe is ungrammatical as the evidential) . s.v. ruwe ruwe ne — the Inferential / Visual-Trace Evidential
41. The diachronic path is transparent and is stated already in the earliest grammars: the noun ru ‘track, path’ > the possessed formal noun ru-we ‘the trace of —’ > the clause-final evidential [clause] ruwe ne, part of the larger cline by which sir, hum, haw, and ru all move from sensory nouns to nominalizers to evidentials ; . s.v. ruwe ruwe ne — the Inferential / Visual-Trace Evidential
42. The source noun covers a semantic cluster of visible and spatial referents: land, mountain, island, 'that area', and the observable appearance or state of something . s.v. sir siri ne — the Direct-Perception / Situational Evidential
43. Tamura notes explicitly that whether the concept form sir and the possessed form siri carry a usage or nuance distinction in the evidential function is unknown ‹speculative›. s.v. sir siri ne — the Direct-Perception / Situational Evidential
44. The blocking of the extra syllable that suppresses *ruwehe and *humihi in evidential function does not apply here: siri already coincides with the regular possessed form . s.v. ruwe, humi siri ne — the Direct-Perception / Situational Evidential
45. Tamura's Saru dictionary defines haw as '(人間・動物の)声、(バイオリンなどの)音' — the voice of a human or animal and the sound of certain instruments; general inanimate sounds such as a drum are expressed instead with the separate noun . s.v. haw, hawe hawe ne — the Reportative / Hearsay Evidential
46. The evidential formal noun is hawe = haw-e, the voice noun plus its possessive suffix, but like the other formal nouns of the evidential paradigm it blocks the additional possessive extension: the form with a further -he is ungrammatical as the evidential (*hawehe) ; . s.v. hawe hawe ne — the Reportative / Hearsay Evidential
47. Tamura describes this as '誰かが言ったことに基づいて述べる; 他人の発言の紹介、自分の発言の さらなる説明' — presenting what someone said, or elaborating on one's own earlier statement (cited via ). s.v. hawe hawe ne — the Reportative / Hearsay Evidential
48. The shift from sensory noun to formal noun is transparent and is noted in the earliest grammars: haw 'voice' > haw-e (possessed) 'the voice of —' > hawe ne 'it is said that …', parallel to the evolution of sir, hum, and ru ; ; . s.v. haw, hawe hawe ne — the Reportative / Hearsay Evidential
49. Tamura's Saru dictionary records hum (ordinary possessed form humi(hi)) with the primary senses 音・感じ 'sound; feeling/sensation' . s.v. hum, humi(hi) humi ne — the Non-Visual Sensory Evidential
50. As a formal noun in the evidential function, humi blocks the additional possessive ending that the full lexical possessed form may carry: the regular possessed noun is humi(hi), but evidential *humihi is ungrammatical — the same blocking that disallows *ruwehe for the inferential ; . s.v. humi, ruwe humi ne — the Non-Visual Sensory Evidential
51. Tamura is explicit: inanimate and non-vocal sounds — a drum, ambient noise, a sound with no identified speaker — take hum, while human and animal voice takes haw . s.v. haw humi ne — the Non-Visual Sensory Evidential
52. The boundary with hawe ne runs along the verbal/non-verbal divide: hawe (from ) encodes information obtained from words — spoken, reported, or overheard — whereas humi covers physical sounds and bodily perceptions that are not themselves linguistic utterances . s.v. haw, hum humi ne — the Non-Visual Sensory Evidential
53. The noun grammaticalized first into the possessed nominal hum-i, and from there into a clause-final formal noun whose implicit possessor is the nominalized event rather than a personal possessor ; . s.v. hum humi ne — the Non-Visual Sensory Evidential
54. The shift from sensory noun to clause-final marker was recognized in the earliest grammatical descriptions and is confirmed morphologically by Tamura's dictionary entries and Chiri's etymology: ruwe derives from 'there is a trace of X', shifted to 'there is the fact of X' ; . s.v. ru, ruwe Mirativity, Evidential Scope, and Grammaticalization to Sentence-Final Particles
55. stresses that the result remains only partially grammaticalized: source-noun semantics are still active in the synchronic distribution (each form retaining a distinct sensory channel), the post-nominal predicate choice still matters for the direct/indirect distinction, and the formal nouns have lost full noun-phrase syntax — they admit no demonstrative or attributive modifier, block the extra possessive ending (*ruwehe, *humihi as evidentials), and are fixed in linear position . s.v. ruwe Mirativity, Evidential Scope, and Grammaticalization to Sentence-Final Particles
56. Easkay is e-askay, the applicative e- on askay ‘be skilled’, and eaykap is e-aykap, the same prefix on aykap ‘be unskilful’ ; ; . s.v. eaykap Negative Predicates of Ability and Cognition
57. Eramiskari stands as the negative of amkir, and erampewtek as the negative of eraman / eramuan; Tamura classes all four as transitive verbs and tags eramiskari and erampewtek explicitly as 否定動詞 ‘negative verbs’ . s.v. eramiskari, erampewtek Negative Predicates of Ability and Cognition
58. Saru has eramiskari, with eramuskari recorded for a single Nibutani speaker and eramuskare in Ishikari; erampewtek appears as erampetek elsewhere ; . s.v. eramiskari Negative Predicates of Ability and Cognition
59. Nakagawa defines its range as inability in a wide sense, covering both a lack of capacity and a situation that does not permit the event, and Tamura adds the further reading ‘be poor at’ ; . s.v. eaykap Negative Predicates of Ability and Cognition
60. Tamura draws the contrast directly — koyaykus for what outside factors prevent, eaykap for what is beyond one's ability or generally impossible ; . s.v. koyaykus Negative Predicates of Ability and Cognition
61. As a main verb eramiskari is ‘not know, not recognize’; after a verb phrase it gives an experiential negative, ‘have never V-ed’ ; . s.v. eramiskari Negative Predicates of Ability and Cognition
62. As a main verb erampewtek is ‘not understand, not know’; after a verb phrase it means that the subject does not know how to carry the event out, and so cannot ; . s.v. erampewtek Negative Predicates of Ability and Cognition
63. Tamura keeps the two cognition negatives apart by source of knowledge: failure to recognize a person or thing is eramiskari, while failure to understand or to have the knowledge is erampewtek . s.v. eramiskari, erampewtek Negative Predicates of Ability and Cognition
64. For at least one pair this is borne out by a primary source: Tamura's entry for amkir states that negation with somo is not formed, and the negative verb eramiskari is used instead . s.v. amkir Negative Predicates of Ability and Cognition
65. Etymologically, derives from an-yak — the existential verb an plus the conditional/contrastive particle — as recorded in the Saru dictionary (corroborated by nukopoli, aynu-corpora Discord 2023-12-08; ) ‹speculative›. s.v. anak Topic and Focus Marking: anak(ne), patek, and ka
66. The anak form is etymologically transparent: Tamura's Saru dictionary derives it from an-yak 'if it is so / as for it being' (reported in , nukopoli, aynu-corpora Discord 2023-12-08, asserted; after ). no page Pragmatic Word-Order Permutation, Dislocation, and Argument Ellipsis
67. Nakagawa's Saru–Chitose inventory includes the members below ; the degree/superlative member is attested in Tamura's Saru dictionary and recurs throughout the oral corpus : s.v. iyotta Adverbs, Degree Words, and Comparison Strategies
68. The superlative degree adverb immediately precedes the modified property predicate: iyotta tanne 'the longest', iyotta pirka 'the most beautiful' . s.v. iyotta Adverbs, Degree Words, and Comparison Strategies
69. The following table synthesizes the forms attested in the best-documented Hokkaido varieties, drawing on Nakagawa and Tamura for Saru ; , and the pedagogical grammar of Ijäs for the broader revitalization inventory . no page Interjections, Response Words, Ideophones, and Sound Symbolism
70. The reduplicative nouns do not extend to new bases by productive rule; they are individually listed in dictionaries rather than derived by a synchronic morphological operation ; . no page Interjections, Response Words, Ideophones, and Sound Symbolism
71. In Tamura's Saru materials, informant 平賀サダモ (Sadamo) does not use oyna as a genre label at all: the divine and culture-hero epics that Kindaichi and Kubodera classed as oyna are subsumed under yúkar in her usage ; . no page The Oral-Literature Genre System and Its Grammatical Signatures
72. is the possessed form of sake; marks the refrain sense with a distinct pitch accent (sákehe) to distinguish it from the homophonous 'for the sake of —'. s.v. sákehe The Oral-Literature Genre System and Its Grammatical Signatures
73. reports that uwepeker narration uses a one-directional, low-variation melodic line, contrasting with the rising contour of conversation that seeks a response; within the Saru basin, upper-Saru (mid-river) narration tends toward near-monotone, while lower-Saru shows more pitch undulation (nukopoli, aynu-corpora Discord 2024-11-16; ) ‹corpus-suggested›. no page The Oral-Literature Genre System and Its Grammatical Signatures
74. showed that the Saru category of oyna is absent from at least one primary narrator's repertoire. no page The Oral-Literature Genre System and Its Grammatical Signatures
75. Folktale intonation — one-directional, low-variation melody, with upper-Saru narration more monotone than lower-Saru — sits apart from the strict melodic structure of sung verse (, nukopoli 2024, asserted, after ). no page The Sakehe Refrain, Verse Meter, and the Structure of Sung Verse
76. Tamura's Saru dictionary records a prosodic distinction: the genre-refrain sense carries initial accent (sákehe) while the common-noun sense 'sake (the beverage)' is unaccented, creating near-homophones that occasionally coincide within a single verse line (see the hancikiki example below) . s.v. sákehe, sakehe The Sakehe Refrain, Verse Meter, and the Structure of Sung Verse
77. The primary rhetorical device of this register is parallelism: two or more consecutive verse lines share the same syntactic frame while one or more lexical positions are filled by semantically related but distinct words ; ; . xv–xvii Parallelism, Couplets, and Word-Pair Doublets
78. The table below collects the pairs directly attested in the primary sources read for this chapter ; ; ; . xv–xvii Parallelism, Couplets, and Word-Pair Doublets
79. The formal sentence-final frame marks utterances as ceremonial assertions in ritual speech contexts, carrying the assertive-present reading appropriate to public declaration rather than the ordinary inferential use of ruwe ne . s.v. ruwe Honorific, Ritual, and Taboo Registers
80. The hunting and bear-ceremony vocabulary, and the kinship-avoidance pairs, remain a gap pending access to Hattori (1957) and to the taboo-marked entries in . no page Honorific, Ritual, and Taboo Registers
81. Third, prayer diverges sharply: the narrator is the human speaker (everyday first person ku=) rather than a logophoric protagonist, and the preferred ceremonial tail is ruwe tapan — a register-marked frame consisting of the trace formal noun plus the demonstrative tapan 'this' (ru-we tapan = 'such is the trace/fact') — rather than plain ruwe ne ; . s.v. ruwe Narrative TAM and Evidential Patterning by Genre
82. Within the Saru basin itself there is geographic variation: upper-Saru (middle-river) narrators are more monotone, lower-Saru narrators more melodically undulating (nukopoli, , 2024-11-16, asserted, citing ). no page Narrative TAM and Evidential Patterning by Genre
83. It does not occur as a syllable coda . no page The Final-h Problem and Its Sakhalin Vowel-Length Reflex
84. gives par as the Saru concept-form, with the possessed form paro-ho. no page Hokkaido Dialect Microvariation: Phonology and Morphosyntax
85. Because these elements are independently attested in the Ainu lexicon with stable meanings ; , the toponymic analysis rests on solid morphological footing at the elemental level even where the etymology of a specific place name requires verification against . s.v. nay, pet, us, oma, to, sir, nupuri, kotan Ainu Loanwords and Toponymy in Japanese
86. The compound ni-kap-us-i — ni 'tree' + kap 'bark' + -us-i 'habitually-at' — yields 'place where bark trees stand', commonly cited as the source of Niikappu 新冠 (illustrative only; ). s.v. -us(i) Ainu Loanwords and Toponymy in Japanese
87. Dictionary evidence — and — together with the secondary literature remain the principal witnesses for most items. no page Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
88. Core Saru terms include , , , , , , , , , and . s.v. Synopsis of Lexical-Semantic Fields
89. The core set includes (4,210 corpus tokens, rank 56), (1,353 tokens), (559 tokens), , , , , and ; . s.v. Synopsis of Lexical-Semantic Fields
90. The community corroborates this distinction: nay = mountain stream/tributary, to = pond (nukopoli, aynu-corpora Discord 2023-12-11, asserted; ; consistent with ) ‹corpus-confirmed›. s.v. pet, nay Synopsis of Lexical-Semantic Fields
91. The directional vocabulary extends to adverbial spatial terms: and locate entities relative to water flow rather than to the speaker's body axis . s.v. penke, panke Synopsis of Lexical-Semantic Fields
92. serves as the predicate of nightfall as well as of the colour black; describes the light of dawn as well as the colour white . s.v. kunne, retar Synopsis of Lexical-Semantic Fields
93. The directional system is river-anchored at the adverbial level: and locate entities relative to water flow rather than to the speaker's body axis . s.v. penke, panke Synopsis of Lexical-Semantic Fields
94. Tamura notes that uwepeker narration is unidirectional — the teller speaks to an audience rather than seeking a response — and the voice falls to a flat, low-variation melodic contour across sentences, in contrast to the rising contour of conversational speech where the speaker solicits a reaction ; the community discussion in the aynu-corpora Discord (nukopoli, 2024-11-16) confirms this datum from Tamura's account . no page A Glossed Uwepeker (Prose Folktale)
95. At Saru, the term is absent from Hiraga Sadamo's (平賀サダモ) usage — she subsumed what Kindaichi and Kubodera classified as sacred biographies under her yukar label, a dialectally conditioned genre-boundary that resists a single universal taxonomy ‹contested›. s.v. oyna Glossed Verse: A Yukar Heroic Epic and a Kamuy Yukar God-Song
96. Tamura's Saru dictionary distinguishes this accented form (sákehe 'melody; refrain') from the unaccented noun for 'sake-rice-wine' (also sake) . s.v. sakehe Glossed Verse: A Yukar Heroic Epic and a Kamuy Yukar God-Song
97. In the frame is marked as a register-specific feature of formal/ ceremonial speech; it appears in prayer contexts and is also documented in other elevated speech (the greeting and negotiation genres). no page A Glossed Inonno-itak (Ritual Prayer)
98. The effect is to assert the clause content as an already-established fact that the addressee can witness directly; in prayer speech, the deity is the witness ; . s.v. ruwe tapan A Glossed Inonno-itak (Ritual Prayer)