Knowledge base · Part VI — Word Classes and Nominal Morphology
35. The Formal / Defective Noun Set (ruwe, hawe, siri, humi, hi, pe, kur)
What is the formal/defective noun set in Hokkaido Ainu and how does it function in nominalization and evidentiality?
北海道アイヌ語の形式名詞/欠如名詞集合とは何か、名詞化と証拠性においてどのように機能するか?
The closed set of bound 'formal' nouns that head nominalized and evidential constructions, defined here as a morphosyntactic subclass with shared diagnostics.
candidate topic from the first edition topic:nominal/formal-defective-nouns read this topic as text
Local network
The chapter, its sections, the sources it cites, the chapters it cross-references, the forms it mentions most, and the claims grouped under it with the sources that assert, propose, doubt or reject each.
Sources
| Source | Citations | Without page | Statements |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nakagawa 2024 | 120 | 59 | |
| Satō 2008 | 82 | 46 | |
| Refsing 1986 | 40 | 26 | |
| Hirosawa 2026 | 35 | 21 | |
| Kindaichi & Chiri 1936 | 18 | 1 | 12 |
| Nakagawa 2022 | 17 | 6 | |
| Takahashi 2022 | 7 | 5 | |
| aynu-corpora Discord 2023–2026 | 4 | 4 | |
| Bugaeva 2012 | 4 | 3 | |
| Bugaeva 2016 | 4 | 4 | |
| Nam 2021 | 4 | 3 | |
| Tamura 1996 | 3 | ||
| Bugaeva 2022 | 3 | 2 | |
| Murasaki 2025 | 3 | 2 | |
| Shibatani 1990 | 3 | 2 | |
| Vovin 2022 | 3 | 3 | |
| Bugaeva 2015 | 2 | 2 | |
| Janhunen 2022 | 2 | 1 |
Related chapters
- Index of Grammatical Morphemes and Affixes ×12
- Index of Subjects ×8
- The Nominalizers -p/-pe and -i/-hi (Participant, Event, Place, Fact) ×5
- Lexical-Head and Formal-Noun Nominalization (kur, uske, ruwe/hawe/siri/humi) ×4
- The Word-Class Inventory and the Noun/Verb Bipartition ×3
- The Nominalization-plus-Copula Evidential Schema ×3
- humi ne — the Non-Visual Sensory Evidential ×3
- The kuni Complementizer and Purpose Complements ×2
- ruwe ne — the Inferential / Visual-Trace Evidential ×2
- hawe ne — the Reportative / Hearsay Evidential ×2
- Nominalized Complements and Control/Raising ×2
- Nominal Subclasses and Obligatorily-Possessed (Bound) Nouns ×2
- Deverbal and Denominal Noun Derivation (Lexical Nominalizer Morphology) ×2
- Nominal Number: Transnumerality, -utar, and the Locus of Plurality ×2
- Interjections, Response Words, Ideophones, and Sound Symbolism ×2
- Concept Form vs. Affiliative (Possessed) Form ×1
- Demonstratives, Anaphora, and Definiteness ×1
- Personal, Reflexive, and Emphatic Pronouns ×1
- Morphophonology of the Affiliative Suffix and Echo/Copy Vowels ×1
- siri ne — the Direct-Perception / Situational Evidential ×1
Forms mentioned
hi 8p ~ pe 7pe 5ru 3p 3-ike 3ruwe(he) 2haw 2tanpe 2-i 2kur 2ruwe 2ne 2hawe(he) 1*pe 1*hi 1*kur 1*pirka ruwe 1*pon kur 1tan 1toan 1toanpe 1utar 1cikappo utar 1ani X p 1ani e=kanpinuye p 1ani humi a=aste p 1ani 1neap 1kani 1ku=an-hi 1c(i)oka(y) 1ci=oka(y) 1asinuma 1a= 1sinuma 1hike 1-ke 1arke 1sake 1
Claims
A claim is one proposition; under it stand the statements of each source, with the stance that source takes. Claims are grouped by a model from the extracted statements and carry that status until reviewed.
Sections
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Overview and terminology 5 claims ·10 sentences
What distinguishes formal nouns from other noun subclasses in Hokkaido Ainu?
- Formal nouns (形式名詞) are nouns with weak independence that attach after verbs or adnominals to form NPs, occurring in short and long forms.形式名詞は動詞や連体詞に後接してNPを形成する独立性の弱い名詞であり、短形と長形がある。asserts murasaki2025
- murasaki2025:103 asserts checked
- Formal nouns have weak independence, are placed after other elements to form noun phrases, and are sometimes called 'noun particles'.形式名詞は自立性が弱く、他の要素の後ろにおかれて名詞句を作るものであり、名助詞と呼ばれることもある。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:257 asserts checked
- Tamura (1988a) characterizes takup as an intermediate category between nouns, noun particles, adverbial particles, and suffixes.田村 (1988a) は takup を「名詞」「名助詞」「副助詞」「接尾辞」の中間的存在としている。reports nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:329 reports checked
- Satō (2008a) distinguished complementizers from formal nouns, calling complementizers meishikaji 'nominalizers' and head nouns of relative clauses keishiki-meishi 'formal nouns'.佐藤 (2008a) は補文標識を「名詞化辞」、関係文の主部となる形式名詞を「形式名詞」と呼んで明確に区別した。reports nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:508 reports checked
- Ruwe, siri, hawe, and pe function as nominalizers.ruwe、siri、hawe、および pe は名詞化辞として機能する。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:231 asserts checked
The inventory 2 claims ·5 sentences
What are the two sets of formal nouns in Hokkaido Ainu and what do they cover?
- Representative formal nouns include p ~ pe 'thing', hi 'matter, thing, time, place', hike 'direction of ~', katu 'manner, state', uske 'place', usi(ke) 'time, place', kur 'person', and utar '-plural'.代表的な形式名詞には p~pe、hi、hike、katu、uske、usi(ke)、kur、utar などがある。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:258 asserts checked
- While usi is widely used as a formal noun meaning 'place', uske is also commonly used in Saru, Chitose, and Shizunai.「ところ」を表わす形式名詞としては usi が広く使われるが、沙流・千歳・静内では uske もよく使われる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:258 asserts checked
Shared diagnostics 11 claims ·8 sentences
What diagnostic properties identify formal nouns in Hokkaido Ainu?
- Complete clauses can only modify a restricted set of semantically bleached formal nouns to form noun phrases.完結文が修飾して名詞句を構成できる名詞は、意味の希薄化した一部の形式名詞に限られる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:386 asserts checked
- nakagawa2024:386 asserts checked
- In Hokkaido dialects, a verb phrase can be followed by the formal nouns hi and pe.北海道方言において、動詞句は形式名詞 hi および pe を後続させることができる。asserts bugaeva2022
- bugaeva2022:20.6 asserts checked
- Pronouns and formal nouns do not take person affixes.代名詞と形式名詞には人称接辞が付加されない。asserts nakagawa2022pos
- nakagawa2022pos:14.3 asserts checked
- The formal nouns p ~ pe and hi nominalize the entire preceding verb phrase rather than merely attaching to the immediately preceding element, and should therefore be considered clitics rather than affixes.形式名詞 p〜pe や hi は直前の要素だけでなく先行する動詞句全体を名詞化する機能を持つため、接辞ではなく接語と見なされるべきである。asserts nakagawa2022pos
- nakagawa2022pos:14.3 asserts anchored
- The formal noun hi can only be modified by a verb phrase, p can be modified by a verb phrase or a prenominal but not by a noun phrase, and utar can be modified by verb phrases, noun phrases, or prenominals.形式名詞 hi は動詞句によってのみ修飾され、p は動詞句または連体詞によって修飾され名詞句では修飾されず、utar は動詞句、名詞句、連体詞によって修飾されうる。asserts nakagawa2022pos
- nakagawa2022pos:14.3 asserts checked
- Verb phrases and adnominals mainly precede formal nouns, but only utar can also take a preceding noun.形式名詞の前にはおもに動詞句や連体詞が来るが、utar のみはその前に名詞を置くこともできる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:258 asserts checked
- takup possesses properties close to a formal noun, as evidenced by its affiliative form takupi matching nominal affiliative morphology.takup は名詞の所属形と同じ takupi という形態を持つことなどから、形式名詞に近い性質を持っている。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:328 asserts checked
- takup cannot follow an adverbial phrase, rendering combinations such as *ukouturuke ta takup impossible.takup は副詞句の後ろに置くことができず、*ukouturuke ta takup のような言い方はできない。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:328 asserts checked
- When attached to a verb phrase, patek is typically verbalized with ki 'do', whereas takup is frequently verbalized with ne 'be'.動詞句に後続した場合、patek は ki で動詞句化するが、takup は ne で行うことが多い。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:328 asserts checked
- Because 'kur' is a formal noun with low syntactic independence, it cannot be used alone and must be preceded by a verb or an adnominal.kur は独立性が低い「形式名詞」なので,単独で用いられることがなく,必ず前に動詞や連体詞を取る。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:18 asserts checked
- Formal nouns (keishiki meishi) are nouns with more concrete meanings than nominalizers but low independence; like regular nouns they can be modified by relative clauses, but usually cannot occur alone.形式名詞は名詞化辞よりも具体的だが独立性の低い名詞群であり,普通の名詞と同様に関係節化を受けて連体修飾名詞句を作るが,普通は単独で現れることができない。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:180 asserts checked
The p ~ pe nominalizer 8 claims ·8 sentences· 3 examples
What two readings does the nominalizer p/pe produce in Hokkaido Ainu?
- The formal nouns p ~ pe can be used as conjunctional particles to connect clauses without serving as an argument of the subsequent clause.形式名詞 p〜pe は、後続節の項(主語や目的語)にならずに、節を接続する接続助詞として使われることがある。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:516 asserts checked
- Ruwe and pe are semantically neutral dummy nominalizers.ruwe と pe は意味的に中立なダミー名詞化辞である。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:231 asserts checked
- As a nominalizer, ruwe may only refer to abstract matters, whereas pe may in other contexts refer to concrete things or impolitely to persons.名詞化辞として ruwe は抽象的な事柄にのみ言及できるが、pe は他の文脈において具体的な事物や(不作法ながら)人物にも言及しうる。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:231 asserts checked
- The formal noun 'pe' can mean either 'thing' or 'person', but when applied to humans rather than 'kur', it often carries a derogatory connotation.形式名詞 pe は「物,者」どちらの意味にもなるが,人間に対して kur ではなく pe を使うと,あまり良い意味ではないことが多い。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:19 asserts checked
- The formal noun takes the form 'pe' after a consonant, but takes the form 'p' after a vowel.形式名詞は子音の後では pe という形だが,母音の後では p という形になる。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:19 asserts checked
- The formal noun meaning 'thing' surfaces as p after vowels and pe after consonants.「もの」を意味する形式名詞 p/pe は,母音の後で p,子音の後で pe となる。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:180 asserts checked
- The formal noun p/pe can be applied to humans, but it often carries an unfavorable nuance, in contrast to kur, which is polite.p/pe「もの」は人間に対しても使うことができるが,あまり良いニュアンスでないことが多く,丁寧な表現である kur と対照をなす。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:180 asserts checked
- The expression pe ne 'it is the case that' is often used in expressions loaded with strong emotion.pe ne「ものだ」という表現は、強い感情を込めた表現で使われることが多い。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:324 asserts extracted
hi and the other general formal nouns 20 claims ·10 sentences· 2 examples
What kind of nominalization does the formal noun hi perform in Hokkaido Ainu?
- In the Tokachi dialect, subordinate clauses formed with the formal nouns "ru", "haw", and "hi" can undergo insubordination, but other formal nouns cannot, because insubordination is restricted to forms denoting indirect evidence.十勝方言では、形式名詞 ru、haw、hi を用いた従属節は脱従属節化が可能であるが、脱従属節化が可能なものは間接証拠を意味するものに限定されるため、それ以外の形式名詞を用いた従属節は脱従属節化できない。reports hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 reports checked
- The formal noun hi is treated as <location> when it is interpreted as denoting 'time' or 'place'.形式名詞hiは「時」または「場所」と解釈される場合、常に<位置>として扱われる。asserts nakagawa2022pos
- nakagawa2022pos:14.4 asserts checked
- In the Tokachi and Ishikari dialects, the form ihi is used alongside hi, but it is almost restricted to the expression ene an ihi 'that it is thus' (=(that which happened is) as follows).十勝方言や石狩方言では hi とともに ihi という形も使われるが、ほぼ ene an ihi という表現に限られる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:258 asserts checked
- takup can also take ki in some instances.takup が ki をとる場合もある。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:329 asserts checked
- Clauses ending in a formal noun plus ne construction cannot form a noun phrase except through nominalization with the formal noun hi.形式名詞+ne型の文末句を含む節は、形式名詞hiで名詞句化する以外には名詞句を構成することができない。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:378 asserts checked
- Noun phrases headed by the formal nouns hi 'time/place', uske (Saru, Chitose, Shizunai), or usi(ke) (all Hokkaido) are always treated as grammatical places.形式名詞 hi「とき、ところ」、uske(沙流・千歳・静内方言)、usi(ke)(北海道全般)「ところ」などを主要部とした名詞句は、常に〈場所〉として扱われる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:458 asserts checked
- Nouns that can serve as complementizers in Ainu are restricted to a subset of formal nouns, primarily hi, katu, p ~ pe, uske, usi, ruwe, siri, hawe, and humi.補文標識になる名詞は一部の形式名詞に限られ、おもに hi, katu, p〜pe, uske, usi, ruwe, siri, hawe, humi である。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:508 asserts checked
- The complementizer uske 'place' is used mainly in the Saru, Chitose, and Shizunai dialects, while usi 'place' is used across all of Hokkaido, including the uske-using region.補文標識 uske「ところ」はおもに沙流・千歳・静内方言で用いられ、usi「ところ」は uske の使用領域を含む北海道全体で用いられる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:508 asserts checked
- Formal nouns with abstract meanings can function as complementizers.抽象的な意味の形式名詞が補文標識となることができる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:509 asserts checked
- The formal noun hike, which means 'one of two or more things', can also function like a conjunctional particle setting up the preceding clause as a premise for the situation described in the following clause.「二つ以上あるものの内の一方」を意味する形式名詞 hike は、前の文を前提として後ろの文が状況を述べるような場合に、接続助詞のように機能することがある。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:516 asserts checked
- In the Saru and Chitose dialects, orano and orowano are frequently combined with the formal noun hi in the forms hi orano and hi orowano, expressing 'since' or 'after'.沙流方言や千歳方言では、形式名詞 hi と組み合わせて hi orano, hi orowano のような形で使われることもよくあり、「〜から」「〜以来」という意味を表すことが多い。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:517 asserts checked
- The generic noun hi can function as a subject or a possessor.形式名詞 hi は主語や所属者(所有者)としても機能しうる。reports nam2021
- nam2021 reports checked
- The morpheme hi is a nominalizer used when referring to abstract matters.形態素hiは抽象的な事柄に言及する際に用いられる名詞化辞である。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:233 asserts checked
- In the example 'a-kouk hike paraparak', 'hike' might alternatively be interpreted as a formal noun rather than a conjunctive particle.「a-kouk hike paraparak」という用例における hike は、接続助詞ではなく形式名詞(「取られたほう」)と解釈すべきものかもしれない。proposes sato2008
- sato2008:53 proposes checked
- The bound noun hi has minimal concrete meaning, can be translated as 'thing' or 'time', and functions to nominalize a whole clause.hi は自立性の低い名詞で、「事、時」のように訳せるが、具体的な意味をほとんど持たず、文全体を名詞化する働きを持つ。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:168 asserts checked
- The noun hike functions as a formal noun meaning 'side / direction (hō)'.名詞 hike は「ほう」を意味する形式名詞として機能する。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:180 asserts checked
- The formal noun usi means 'place' or 'time'.形式名詞 usi は「ところ,時」を意味する。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:181 asserts checked
- Unlike usi, the locational noun or 'place' cannot be adnominally modified by a verb phrase in a relative clause construction.位置名詞 or「ところ」は usi と異なり,動詞句で連体修飾(関係節化)することができない。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:181 asserts checked
- The adverb ene means 'thus, this way' on its own, but often combines with a formal noun to form a manner noun clause corresponding to Japanese 'how one should do...'.副詞 ene は単独で「こう、このように」という意味を表すが、形式名詞を後ろに伴って日本語の「どう〜したらよいか」に相当する様態の名詞節を作る働きをすることが多い。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:294 asserts checked
- The formal noun hike (ike) expresses the meaning 'the side of, the one (of two)'.形式名詞 hike (ike) は「〜の方」という意味を表す。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:357 asserts checked
kur and kuni: person and purpose nominals 4 claims ·9 sentences
What semantic roles do the formal nouns kur and kuni express in Hokkaido Ainu?
- The noun kur means 'man, human being' and is synchronically not used as an endonym by the Ainu.名詞 kur は「男、人間」を意味し、共時的にはアイヌの自称詞としては用いられない。asserts janhunen2022
- janhunen2022:2.2 asserts checked
- The noun 'kur' means 'person', but is mainly used for men.kur は「人」という意味だが,主に男性に対して用いる。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:18 asserts checked
- The noun kur functions as a formal noun meaning 'person'.名詞 kur は「人」を意味する形式名詞として機能する。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:180 asserts checked
The sensory-evidential quartet 53 claims ·7 sentences
What are the syntactic requirements of the sensory-evidential formal nouns in Hokkaido Ainu?
- The formal noun ruwe references sensory information or knowledge that the speaker has processed internally.形式名詞 ruwe は、話者が頭の中で内的に処理した知覚情報や知識を参照する。proposes hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 proposes checked
- hirosawa2026 proposes anchored
- The formal noun ruwe can express direct experience or direct evidence.形式名詞 ruwe は直接体験や直接証拠を表すことができる。asserts hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 asserts checked
- contradicts(differs in unresolved): The formal noun ruwe is restricted to matters indirectly recognized through comprehension.— Hirosawa asserts ruwe can mark direct evidence, contradicting Sato's claim reported by Hirosawa that it marks only indirect evidence.
- The formal noun ruwe is restricted to matters indirectly recognized through comprehension.形式名詞 ruwe は理解力を介して間接的に認識される事柄にのみ用いられる。reports hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 reports checked
- The construction ruwe ne functions to summarize or integrate discourse information, akin to Japanese no da.ruwe ne 構文には、日本語の「のだ」と同様に談話情報を統括する機能がある。reports hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 reports checked
- Instances of ruwe ne analyzed as having a summarizing function can alternatively be analyzed as presenting new information.統括機能と分析される ruwe ne の用例の一部は、新情報提示として再分析できる。asserts hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 asserts checked
- contrasts(differs in level-of-analysis): The construction ruwe ne functions to summarize or integrate discourse information, akin to Japanese no da.— Hirosawa reanalyzes discourse tokens previously treated as integration/summarization as new-information presentation.
- The formal noun ruwe is used when expressing that something is certain (Tamura 1997: 39).形式名詞 ruwe は「確実であること(田村 1997: 39)」を表す際に用いるとされる。reports hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 reports checked
- One use of 'ruwe ne' presents information that the speaker judges the addressee is likely unaware of as new information in the discourse, closely resembling the interpersonal-mood use of Japanese 'noda'.ruwe ne の用法の一つに、話し手が聞き手に認識されていないと判断した内容につき、談話上の新情報として提示する用法があり、日本語の「対人的ムードのノダ」とよく似ている。asserts hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 asserts checked
- Previous research has not described the new-information marking function of 'ruwe ne'.先行研究では ruwe ne の新情報提示の用法については記述されていない。asserts hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 asserts checked
- According to Tang (2020), in first-person uses of evidential formal nouns, ruwe functions to explain matters experienced by the speaker.唐(2020)によれば、証拠性形式名詞の一人称での用例において、ruwe には話し手が自分の経験したことに関する説明を行う機能がある。reports hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 reports checked
- hawe and ruwe can alternate in virtually identical sentences, suggesting that ruwe originally refers to information sources obtained through the five senses.ほとんど同じ文で hawe と ruwe が交替する例が見られ、ruwe はもともと五感から得た情報源を参照していると考えられる。asserts hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 asserts checked
- The formal noun ruwe is used to state a fact with certainty (certitudinal/affirmative mood).ruwe は事実に就いて確説する(確説法)。asserts kindaichi1936
- kindaichi1936 asserts checked
- The formal noun humi indicates subjective judgment based on perception (sensory/affective statement).humi は主観的な判断を示す(感説法)。asserts kindaichi1936
- kindaichi1936 asserts checked
- The formal noun hawe is used to state hearsay or report what was heard (hearsay/reportative statement).hawe は聞いたことに就いて述べる(聞説法)。asserts kindaichi1936
- kindaichi1936 asserts checked
- The formal noun shiri is used to state what is seen visually (visual perception statement), and can also express an adversative sense 'even though / while'.shiri は目で見てゐる様子に就いて述べ(見説法)、また「……のに」の意味を表すこともある。asserts kindaichi1936
- kindaichi1936 asserts checked
- In many dialects sentence-final phrases are formed with the possessed forms ruwe and hawe of formal nouns ru and haw, but in the Tokachi dialect the concept forms ru and haw are used instead.多くの方言では文末句は形式名詞 ru, haw などの所属形 ruwe, hawe で構成されるが、十勝方言では概念形 ru, haw が用いられる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:110 asserts checked
- The formal nouns used in sentence-final phrases are basically the four items ruwe, siri, hawe, and humi.文末句として用いられる形式名詞は、基本的に ruwe, siri, hawe, humi の4つである。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:391 asserts checked
- When ruwe, siri, hawe, and humi are used as formal nouns in their affiliative forms, they mean 'fact/that', 'visible appearance', 'voice', and 'sound/(non-visual sensory) feeling', respectively, and function to form a noun phrase from a completed sentence.これらが所属形の形で形式名詞として使われる時は、ruwe「こと、の」、siri「目に見えた様子」、hawe「声」、humi「音、(視覚以外の感覚による)感じ」という意味になり、完結文を受けて名詞句を作る働きをする。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:391 asserts checked
- Compared to 'formal noun + ne', the verbality of 'formal noun + an' is extremely low; when used with interrogative meaning, it is followed only by a small number of elements such as hi or the interrogative final particle ya, and cannot be connected to a subsequent sentence with a conjunctive particle.形式名詞 + an は形式名詞 + ne に比べて動詞句性は非常に低く、疑問の意味で使われている場合には、その後ろには hi か、疑問の終助詞 ya など少数の要素しか来ず、接続助詞で次の文に続けられることもない。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:395 asserts checked
- Polar interrogatives (yes-no questions) can be formed as sentence-final phrases by ending simply with ruwe, siri, hawe, or humi without a copula.対極疑問文(yes-no 疑問文)は、アイヌ語の文末句としては ruwe, siri, hawe, humi で終わることによって作られる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:395 asserts checked
- When bare formal nouns (ruwe, hawe, etc.) are used with interrogative words, they often question the very situation itself rather than asking for the specific content.形式名詞のみの形式は疑問詞とともに使われる場合も多く、その場合は内容についての質問をしているというよりは、その事態そのものに疑問を呈している場合が多い。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:395 asserts checked
- Bare formal nouns in sentence-final position are also used to express strong emotions such as surprise, admiration, or pain.形式名詞のみの形式は、驚きとか、感心、苦痛といった、強い感情表現をする場合にも使われる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:396 asserts checked
- The combination 'formal noun + un' is used as an affirmative response ('yes, that is so') to a question asked with a polar interrogative.対極疑問文で質問されたことについて、「はい、そうです」という肯定の返事として、形式名詞+un という言い方をする。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:396 asserts checked
- Nothing, including final particles, formal nouns, and conjunctive particles, ever follows bare formal nouns or 'formal noun + un' in sentence-final position.形式名詞のみの場合と形式名詞 + un の後ろには、終助詞・形式名詞・接続助詞を含めて、他の要素は何も後続することが無い。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:397 asserts checked
- The formal noun humi can be used in sentence-final expressions to express a sensation such as disgust or horror.形式名詞 humi は、文末表現において「おぞましさ」のような感覚を表現するために用いられることがある。proposes nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:401 proposes checked
- Exclamatory clauses are expressed by sentence-final phrases ending in ruwe, hawe, siri, or humi.感嘆文は、文末句のうち、ruwe, hawe, siri, humi で終わる形式で表現される。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:426 asserts checked
- Exclamatory sentences ending in formal nouns do not only express admiration; at times they can take on an ironic or rhetorical meaning.感嘆文は感情を特に表現するための形式ということであるので、感心していることばかりを表わすわけではない。時には反語的な意味にもなる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:426 asserts checked
- Sentence-final phrases, especially those using siri, express ongoing situations in the present, because siri expresses visual information and, when used sentence-finally, denotes an action taking place before one's eyes with a meaning like a present progressive.文末句のうち、特に siri を用いることによって現在進行中の状況を表すことができ、siri は視覚的情報を表すため文末句として使われると目の前で行われている行為を表して現在進行形のような意味を持つ。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:435 asserts anchored
- The sentence-final phrase uses of ruwe, siri, hawe, and humi can be regarded as one type of complementizer use.ruwe、siri、hawe、humi については、§11で説明した文末句としての用法も、この補文標識のひとつであると考えることができる。proposes nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:509 proposes checked
- The expletives ko and konna appear primarily after formal nouns such as ru, haw, sir, and hum, followed by onomatopoeic/mimetic-based verbs, to adjust meter without adding meaning.虚辞のkoやkonnaは、主にru, haw, sir, humといった形式名詞の後に現れ、擬声語・擬態語を語根にした動詞が続く常套句を形成し、意味を付加せず音律を整える。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:593 asserts checked
- Siri originally means 'appearance' and as a nominalizer may only refer to something that can be seen.siri は本来「外見・様子」を意味し、名詞化辞としては目に見えるものにのみ言及できる。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:231 asserts checked
- Hawe exists as an independent noun meaning 'voice', and as a nominalizer it may only refer to something heard or said.hawe は「声」を意味する名詞としても存在し、名詞化辞としては聞かれたことや発言されたことにのみ言及できる。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:231 asserts checked
- Ruwe forms part of various sentence-final expressions denoting question or assertion.ruweは疑問や断定を表す様々な文末表現の一部を成す。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:261 asserts checked
- Hawe forms part of sentence-final forms, where it nominalizes predicates related to hearing or speaking.haweも文末形式の一部を成し、「聞く」または「話す」ことに関係する述語を名詞化するのに用いられる。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:261 asserts checked
- The nominalizers katu and siri are both used after verbs describing a situation or a condition.名詞化辞katuとsiriはいずれも状況や状態を表す動詞の後に用いられる。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:261 asserts checked
- Siri may be used after action verbs to mean the 'way of action' when followed by a descriptive expression.siriは動作動詞の後に用いられて、描写的な表現が続く場合に「動作の仕方」を意味することがある。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:262 asserts checked
- Siri appears in a number of sentence-final forms.siriは多くの文末形式に現れる。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:262 asserts checked
- The nominalizers pokon and kotom indicate that the preceding verb describes how things appear to the speaker, not necessarily how they really are.名詞化辞pokonとkotomは、先行する動詞が事物が話し手にどのように見えるかを表し、必ずしも実際のありようではないことを示す。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:262 asserts checked
- Pokon often indicates that the appearance of things is due to pretence on the part of the agent.pokonは事物の現れが動作主の見せかけ(ふり)によるものであることをしばしば示す。asserts refsing1986
- refsing1986:262 asserts checked
- Whereas Tamura (1996) treats this construction as 'sir iki', Satō writes 'siri iki' in view of the usage of the nominalizer 'siri'.田村 (1996) では sir iki とされているが、名詞化辞の用法から考えて佐藤は siri (siri iki) とする。proposes sato2008
- sato2008:57 proposes checked
- ruwe, an abstract noun meaning 'matter/fact', functions in sentence-final position to form a polite interrogative sentence.抽象的な意味の名詞 ruwe は,文末で丁寧な疑問文を作る役割を果たす。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:100 asserts checked
- The formal noun ruwe expresses abstract 'matter/fact', but it can also be placed clause-finally to form a polite interrogative sentence.ruwe は「事」という抽象的な意味を表す形式名詞であるが,文末に置かれて丁寧な疑問文を作る用法もある。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:120 asserts checked
- The main nominalizers used in interrogatives are ruwe, hawe, siri, and humi, which are the affiliative forms of the nouns ru ('trace'), haw ('voice'), sir ('appearance'), and hum ('sound') respectively.疑問文に用いられる主な名詞化辞は ruwe, hawe, siri, humi であり、それぞれ名詞 ru(「跡」)、haw(「声」)、sir(「様子」)、hum(「音」)の所属形である。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:134 asserts checked
- In questions using the nominalizers ruwe, hawe, siri, or humi, polar (yes-no) questions end directly with the nominalizer without a following verb, whereas content (wh-) questions obligatorily place the existential verb an after the nominalizer.名詞化辞 ruwe, hawe, siri, humi を用いた疑問文において、諾否疑問文は動詞句の後に名詞化辞を置くだけで文を終止するが、疑問詞疑問文では名詞化辞の後に必ず動詞 an「ある」が置かれる。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:136 asserts checked
- Declarative sentences end in ne (as in ruwe ne), wh-questions end in the existential verb an (as in ruwe an), and yes-no questions end directly in the nominalizer ruwe with no verb.平叙文では ruwe ne のように ne が現れ、疑問詞疑問文では ruwe an のように存在動詞 an が現れ、諾否疑問文では ruwe で文が終止され動詞は用いられない。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:136 asserts checked
- The nominalizer construction with ruwe, hawe, siri, or humi followed by an is also used to form exclamative sentences.「ruwe, hawe, siri, humi+an」という構文は、感嘆文を作る場合にも用いられる。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:136 asserts checked
- While the sentence-final verb an is obligatory in wh-questions using nominalizers, it is not necessarily obligatory in exclamative sentences.名詞化辞を用いた疑問詞疑問文では必須である末尾の an は、感嘆文では必ずしも義務的ではない。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:137 asserts checked
- The phrase siri ka isam is used to mean 'there is no sign/indication of'.siri ka isam は「気配, 兆しがない」という意味で用いられる。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:179 asserts checked
- humi as means 'there is a sound', but it is also used to mean 'it feels like / there is a feeling that'.humi as は「音がする」という意味であるが、「〜のような感じがする」という意味でも用いられる。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:241 asserts checked
- The combination ruwe ne serves as an explanatory construction corresponding to Japanese 'no da'.ruwe ne は日本語の「のだ」にあたる説明の形式である。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:290 asserts checked
- ukokimatek hawe can be analyzed as a content clause formed by the nominalizer hawe.ukokimatek hawe「皆であわてる声」は、名詞化辞 hawe による内容節と考えられる。proposes sato2008
- sato2008:298 proposes checked
- The phrase hawe ene an i takes a speech verb before it and expresses the meaning 'the contents of what was said were as follows'.hawe ene an i は、前に発言動詞を取って、「言った内容は次のようであった」という意味を表す。asserts sato2008
- sato2008:360 asserts checked
- Chitose dialect siri corresponds to Tokachi dialect sir.千歳方言のsiriは十勝方言のsirに対応する形式である。asserts takahashi2022
- takahashi2022:18.6 asserts checked
- Chitose dialect ruwe corresponds to Tokachi dialect ru.千歳方言のruweは十勝方言のruに対応する形式である。asserts takahashi2022
- takahashi2022:18.6 asserts checked
Grammaticalization: from lexical noun to formal noun 8 claims ·11 sentences
What is the grammaticalization path from lexical noun to formal noun in the sensory-evidential set of Hokkaido Ainu?
- The bound nouns pe/p 'thing/person', hike 'side', and hi/i 'place/time' have developed grammaticalized functions as derivational suffixes and subordinating conjunctions.所属名詞の pe/p「もの/人」、hike「方」、hi/i「所/時」は文法化し、派生接尾辞および従属接続詞としての用法を発達させている。asserts bugaeva2012
- bugaeva2012:470–471 asserts checked
- According to Chiri (1936), ruwe is the concrete form of the noun ru 'road/track' and shifted into a factual marker through meanings such as 'there are traces of...' or 'there is the fact that...'.知里(1936)によれば、ruweは「路」等を意味する名詞ruの具体形であり、「何々の痕跡がある」「何々の事実がある」のように事実法に転じていったと考えられる。reports hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 reports checked
- The evidential formal noun ruwe is thought to derive from the possessed (affiliative) form of the common noun ru 'road, track, trace'.証拠性形式名詞 ruwe は、普通名詞 ru「道、跡」の所属形に由来するとみられる。proposes hirosawa2026
- hirosawa2026 proposes checked
- The noun katu means 'manner', 'appearance', or 'state'.katu は「様子」「有様」「状態」を意味する。asserts kindaichi1936
- kindaichi1936 asserts checked
- The ordinary noun utar 'companion, relative' has grammaticalized into a formal noun functioning as a pluralizer.普通名詞 utar「仲間、親族」は文法化を経て複数化辞として機能する形式名詞になったと考えられる。asserts nakagawa2022pos
- nakagawa2022pos:14.3 asserts checked
- The possessed forms ruwe, hawe, siri, and humi are common nouns that grammaticalized to lose part of their original lexical meaning and function like formal nouns in sentence-final phrases.ruwe, hawe, siri, humi は普通名詞だが文法化によって本来の意味の一部を失い、文末句中で形式名詞のような使われ方をする。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:259 asserts extracted
- Etymologically, the formal nouns ruwe, siri, hawe, and humi are the affiliative forms of the common nouns ru 'path, track', sir 'appearance, weather, land', haw 'voice', and hum 'sound, feeling', respectively.形式名詞 ruwe, siri, hawe, humi は、語源的にはそれぞれ普通名詞 ru「道、跡」、sir「見た目の様子、天候、大地」、haw「声」、hum「音、感じ」の所属形である。proposes nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:391 proposes checked
- The form sittapan, which likely arose from the conceptual form of the formal noun sir combining with tapan (sir+tapan > sittapan), is particularly characteristic of the Ishikari dialect.形式名詞 sir の概念形がこの tapan と結合して、sir+tapan > sittapan となったと思われる形が、特に石狩方言に特徴的に見られる。asserts nakagawa2024
- nakagawa2024:402 asserts checked