120. The Nominalization-plus-Copula Evidential Schema

The nominalization-plus-copula schema 9 claims ·7 sentences· 1 examples

What construction combines a nominalized clause and a copula to encode evidentiality in Hokkaido Ainu?

1. In Hokkaido Ainu evidential, modal, and aspectual constructions, the verb appears in its regular finite form directly followed by a nominalizing word without the equative copula ne.
   北海道アイヌ語の証拠性・モダリティ・アスペクト構文では、動詞は通常の定形（finite form）で用いられ、同等コピュラ ne を介さず名詞化語に直接後続される。
   distribution hokkaido generic ne
   asserts bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 asserts checked
2. Evidential constructions in Ainu are formed by nominalizing a verb phrase with an evidential formal noun and following it with the copula ne, functioning as sentence-final expressions in declarative clauses.
   アイヌ語では、動詞句の後に証拠性形式名詞をおいて名詞化した後、コピュラneをおいてコピュラ文を形成し、平叙文の文末表現として用いられる。
   form-function ainu ne
   asserts hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked
3. ruwe ne consists structurally of a formal noun plus a copula.
   ruwe ne は「形式名詞 + コピュラ」という組成をもつ。
   analysis ainu ruwe ne
   asserts hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked
4. In Ainu, evidential constructions nominalize verb phrases using the formal nouns ruwe, siri, hawe, and humi, and combine them with a copula.
   アイヌ語において、証拠性構文は形式名詞 ruwe、siri、hawe、humi を用いて動詞句を名詞化し、コピュラと結合する構文である。
   existence ainu generic ruwesirihawehumi
   asserts hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked
5. Nominalized assertive constructions assert the factualness or truthfulness of the sentence.
   名詞化辞を用いた断定構文は、文の事実性や真実性を断定する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ruwe ne
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:237 asserts checked
6. Modal expressions, mostly evidential, generally take the form of appositively nominalized expressions with a head noun plus the copula ne or an.
   モダリティ表現の多くは証拠性に関わるものであり、一般に主要部名詞にコピュラneまたはanが後続する同格的名詞化表現の形をとる。
   form-function ainu usually nean
   asserts shibatani1990
   • shibatani1990 asserts checked
7. In Ainu, evidentiality is expressed by complex predicates composed of combinations of nominalizers and verbs.
   アイヌ語において、証拠性は形式名詞（名詞化辞）と動詞の組み合わせからなる複合述語によって表される。
   form-function ainu generic
   asserts takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.2 asserts checked
8. Syntactically, complex predicates expressing evidentiality are formed of complement clauses.
   統語論的には、証拠性を表す複合述語は補文から構成されると言える。
   analysis ainu generic
   asserts takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.2 asserts checked
9. In evidential complex predicates, the complement clause corresponds either to the subject of an existential verb or to the complement of the copula.
   証拠性の複合述語において、補文は存在動詞の主語に対応する場合と、コピュラの補部に対応する場合がある。
   distribution ainu all
   asserts takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.2 asserts anchored

The four formal nouns: morphological sources and evidential values 21 claims ·5 sentences

Which four bound nouns mark evidential source in Hokkaido Ainu, and what meanings does each carry?

1. Evidential markers ruwe, hawe, humi, and siri, despite their transparent nominal origin with possessive suffixes, function primarily as evidential particles.
   証拠性標識 ruwe、hawe、humi、siri は、所有接尾辞を持つ透明な名詞起源であるにもかかわらず、主たる機能は証拠性助詞である。
   analysis ainu generic ruwehawehumisiri
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:470–471 asserts checked
2. The light noun ru-w-e expresses inferential evidentiality and is also used as a modality marker of certainty.
   形式名詞ru-w-eは推量証拠性を表し、確信のモダリティ標識としても用いられる。
   form-function hokkaido generic ru-w-e
   asserts bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 asserts checked
3. The light noun haw-e expresses reportative evidentiality.
   形式名詞haw-eは伝聞証拠性を表す。
   form-function hokkaido generic haw-e
   asserts bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 asserts checked
4. The light noun sir-i expresses visual evidentiality.
   形式名詞sir-iは視覚証拠性を表す。
   form-function hokkaido generic sir-i
   asserts bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 asserts checked
5. The light noun hum-i expresses non-visual sensory evidentiality.
   形式名詞hum-iは非視覚的感覚証拠性を表す。
   form-function hokkaido generic hum-i
   asserts bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 asserts checked
6. Ainu marks the information source of an utterance using the formal nouns ruwe, hawe, siri, and humi.
   アイヌ語は、形式名詞ruwe/hawe/siri/humiによって発話内容の情報源を標示する。
   form-function ainu ruwehawesirihumi
   asserts hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked
7. According to Kindaichi (1931), siri ('visual evidential mood') is an expression used to describe an aspect of something seen with one's own eyes.
   金田一（1931）によれば、siri（見説法）は目で見ている有様について述べる言葉遣いである。
   form-function ainu siri
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
8. According to Kindaichi (1931), hawe ('auditory evidential mood') expresses that something is so based on what was heard.
   金田一（1931）によれば、hawe（聞説法）は聞いたところについて「云々である」と述べる語法である。
   form-function ainu hawe
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
9. According to Kindaichi (1931), humi ('sensory mood') expresses a speaker's subjective, uncertain judgement, conveying meanings such as 'I feel that...' or 'it seems...'.
   金田一（1931）によれば、humi（感説法）は「・・・と感じる」「・・・と思う」のように主観をあらわし、「らしい」というような不確かな判断をあらわす。
   form-function ainu humi
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
10. According to Kindaichi (1931), ruwe ('factual/certain mood') conveys that something is definitely so and expresses a settled attitude, functioning close to mood rather than aspect or tense.
    金田一（1931）によれば、ruwe（事実法・確説法）はしかと云々する意味、きまっている心持ちをあらわし、時差や動作体ではなくmoodに近い。
    form-function ainu ruwe
    reports hirosawa2026
    • hirosawa2026 reports checked
11. Evidential forms in Ainu mainly indicate the information source of the verb phrase.
    アイヌ語の証拠性形式は、主として動詞句の情報源を表す。
    form-function ainu generic
    asserts hirosawa2026
    • hirosawa2026 asserts checked
12. The affirmative evidential ending ruwe-ne is used to insist upon or emphasize a fact.
    確説法の ruwe-ne は事実に就いて念を押す気持ちを表す。
    form-function ruwe-ne
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
13. The endings humi-ash, humi-an, and humi-ne express sensory evidentiality (impression).
    humi-ash、humi-an、humi-ne は感説法を表す。
    form-function humi-ashhumi-anhumi-ne
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
14. The reportative evidentials hawe, hawe-an (plural hawe-okai), and hawe-ta-an (plural hawe-ta-okai) express questions or exclamations about hearsay.
    聞説法の hawe、hawe-an（複数 hawe-okai）、hawe-ta-an（複数 hawe-ta-okai）は疑問あるいは感嘆を表す。
    form-function hawehawe-anhawe-okaihawe-ta-anhawe-ta-okai
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
15. The reportative endings hawe-ash and hawe-ne express 'it is said that...'.
    聞説法の hawe-ash および hawe-ne は「……といふ話である」という意味を表す。
    form-function hawe-ashhawe-ne
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
16. The visual evidentials shiri, shiri-an (plural shiri-okai), and shiri-ta-an (plural shiri-ta-okai) express questions or surprise based on visual appearance.
    見説法の shiri、shiri-an（複数 shiri-okai）、shiri-ta-an（複数 shiri-ta-okai）は問いまたは驚きを表す。
    form-function shirishiri-anshiri-okaishiri-ta-anshiri-ta-okai
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
17. The visual evidential ending shiri-ne expresses an explanation of an immediate phenomenon or fact.
    見説法の shiri-ne は目前の現象または事実について「……である」「……した所である」と断る気持ちを表す。
    form-function shiri-ne
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
18. In declarative sentences with formal noun + ne, ruwe ne indicates that the speaker recognizes the proposition as a fact, siri ne indicates visual evidence, hawe ne indicates hearsay/verbal information, and humi ne indicates sensory information other than vision and speech.
    平叙文の「形式名詞 + ne」において、ruwe ne は話者が事実として認識していること、siri ne は視覚的情報からの判断、hawe ne は言葉で聞いた情報からの判断、humi ne は視覚と言葉以外の感覚による情報からの判断を示す。
    form-function ainu all ruwe nesiri nehawe nehumi ne
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:392 asserts checked
19. The use of nominalizers in the affiliative form in interrogatives and assertions indicates that the speaker operates under the premise of having already obtained knowledge or experience from the situation or context.
    名詞化辞を用いた構文において名詞化辞が所属形をとっていることは、話し手が場面や文脈から既に何らかの知識や体験を得ているという前提に基づくことを間接的に示している。
    analysis hokkaido generic ruwehawesirihumi
    proposes sato2008
    • sato2008:135 proposes checked
20. The head nouns of modal expressions derive etymologically from nouns associated with types of evidence or channels of information.
    モダリティ表現の主要部名詞は、語源的には情報の証拠の種類や情報入手経路に関連する名詞に由来する。
    diachrony ainu generic
    asserts shibatani1990
    • shibatani1990 asserts checked
21. Evidential nominalizers such as ruwe, hawe, humi, and siri are etymologically converted from ordinary nouns.
    ruwe、hawe、humi、siri などの証拠性名詞化辞は、語源的には通常の名詞に由来する。
    diachrony hokkaido/southwest/saru all ruwehawehumisiri
    reports takahashi2022
    • takahashi2022:18.3 reports checked

Typological placement: the C1 system 4 claims ·5 sentences

How is the Hokkaido Ainu evidential system typologically classified, and how does its analytic realization differ from affixal systems?

1. Ainu has a four-term evidential system.
   アイヌ語は4項からなる証拠性体系を持つ。
   existence ainu
   asserts bugaeva2022
   • bugaeva2022:1.1 asserts checked
2. According to Aikhenvald's (2004) typology, Ainu has a C1-type evidentiality system that distinguishes visual, non-visual, inferred, and reported evidential parameters.
   アイケンヴァルト（2004）の分類に従えば、アイヌ語は視覚、非視覚、推量、報告のパラメーターを区別するC1タイプの証拠性体系をもつ言語である。
   analysis ainu ruwehawesirihumi
   asserts hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked
3. There is a hierarchy in Ainu evidentiality, such that ruwe occupies a different hierarchical rank from other evidential formal nouns.
   アイヌ語の証拠性には階層があり、ruwe はほかの証拠性形式名詞との間に階層の差異がある。
   analysis ainu ruwe
   proposes hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 proposes checked
4. A four-way evidential contrast among visual sensory, non-visual sensory, hearsay, and inferential can be found in many Ainu dialects.
   アイヌ語の多くの方言において、視覚的感覚、非視覚的感覚、伝聞、推量の4種類の証拠性の対立が見られる。
   existence ainu usually
   asserts takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.2 asserts checked

Direct and indirect evidentiality: the eight-form system 1 claims ·7 sentences

What two parameters organize the eight evidential forms, and how do direct and indirect forms differ in their copula choice?

1. In Ainu, grammatical moods include kakusei-hō (assertive/fact-mood), kensai-hō (visual/evident-mood), bunsai-hō (reportative-mood), kansai-hō (sensory-mood), yoki-hō (expectation-mood), and ishi-hō (volitional-mood), all of which are marked by particles.
   アイヌ語の法には「確説法」「見説法」「聞説法」「感説法」「豫期法」「意志法」等があり、悉く助詞によつて示される。
   existence all
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked

Token frequencies 1 claims ·7 sentences

Which evidential form occurs most often in Hokkaido Ainu texts, and how do token counts compare across all forms?

1. While hawe tapan and siri tapan are well attested, occurrences of humi tapan are far fewer by comparison.
   ruwe 以外の、hawe tapan、siri tapan などの表現も例がたくさんあるが、humi tapan の例はそれらに比べてずっと少ない。
   frequency ainu hawe tapansiri tapanhumi tapan
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:402 asserts checked

Analytical frameworks 4 claims ·16 sentences

What analytical traditions have described the same clause-final evidential construction, and how do they conflict?

1. In addition to proper evidential functions, epistemic functions developed in evidential heads, such as an assertive function of ruwe and a probability function of hawe.
   本来の証拠性機能に加え、ruwe の断定機能や hawe の蓋然性機能といった認識論的機能が発達した。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest generic ruwehawe
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:494–495 asserts checked
2. Asai (1969), in describing the Ishikari dialect of the Kamikawa region, classifies evidential formal nouns as 'verbal particles' (dōjoshi).
   浅井（1969）は上川地方の石狩方言の記述において、証拠性形式名詞を「動助詞」として分類している。
   terminology hokkaido/central/ishikari
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
3. In Nakagawa (1995), while "hawe (ne)", "humi (ne)", and "siri (ne)" are classified as sentence-final particles, "ruwe" alone is distinguished between a formal noun and a sentence-final particle.
   中川（1995）では、hawe (ne)、humi (ne)、siri (ne) はいずれも「文末詞」とされるが、ruwe のみ「形式名詞」と「文末詞」に区別されている。
   analysis hokkaido/chitose hawehumisiriruwe
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
4. In Kiritani's (1998) grammar of the Tokachi dialect, evidential forms are classified as "clause-final phrases" that indicate how the speaker perceived the content stated in a clause or sequence of clauses.
   切替（1998）の十勝方言文法において、証拠性形式は「節末句」に分類され、話し手が節あるいは節の連続体で述べられた内容をどのように認識したかを示すものであるとされる。
   analysis hokkaido/central/tokachi generic 'aw nehum neru nesin ne
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked

The shared clause-final frame paradigm 13 claims ·5 sentences· 2 examples

What shared clause-final frame paradigm do the evidential nouns form according to sentence type and following element?

1. In evidential, modal, and aspectual sentences, light nouns are followed by the equative copula ne in declarative sentences, and by the existential copula an in content questions.
   証拠性・モダリティ・アスペクト文において、形式名詞は平叙文では等価コピュラneを後続させ、内容疑問文では存在コピュラanを後続させる。
   distribution hokkaido generic nean
   asserts bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 asserts checked
2. In evidential, modal, and aspectual sentences without a copula, the final copula is omitted in polar questions and exclamations, so nominalizations are used as non-embedded finite main clauses.
   コピュラを伴わない証拠性・モダリティ・アスペクト文において、末尾のコピュラは真偽疑問文や感嘆文で脱落し、名詞化節が非埋め込みの定形主節構造として用いられる。
   distribution hokkaido generic
   asserts bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 asserts checked
3. In Hokkaido Ainu declarative sentences, the equative copula ne is used after the nominalizing word, unlike Sakhalin Ainu which uses the locative copula an.
   北海道アイヌ語の平叙文では名詞化語の後に同等コピュラ ne が用いられ、樺太アイヌ語のように存在コピュラ an は用いられない。
   variation hokkaidosakhalin generic nean
   asserts bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 asserts checked
4. In Hokkaido Ainu, the sentence-final copula is omitted in exclamations and polar questions.
   北海道アイヌ語では、感嘆文および真偽疑問文において文末のコピュラが省略される。
   distribution hokkaido generic
   asserts bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 asserts checked
5. In Hokkaido Ainu, the form (np…) v nmz requires the use of the copula ne sentence-finally only when the nominalizing word functions as a marker of evidentiality, modality, or aspect.
   北海道アイヌ語において、文末の(np…) v nmz形式が係辞neの生起を要求するのは、名詞化語が証拠性、モダリティ、またはアスペクトの標識として機能する場合のみである。
   distribution hokkaido all ne
   asserts bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 asserts checked
6. The affirmative forms ruwe-an (plural ruwe-okai) and ruwe-ta-an (plural ruwe-ta-okai), as well as bare ruwe, express questions or exclamations.
   確説法の ruwe-an（複数 ruwe-okai）および ruwe-ta-an（複数 ruwe-ta-okai）、ならびに ruwe は疑問または感嘆を表す。
   form-function ruweruwe-anruwe-okairuwe-ta-anruwe-ta-okai
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
7. A verb phrase followed by a formal noun plus ne type sentence-final phrase (such as ruwe ne or hawe ne) cannot be followed by an adverbial particle.
   ruwe neやhawe neのような「形式名詞＋ne」型の文末句が加わった動詞句は、副助詞を後ろに置く構文を作ることができない。
   distribution hokkaido none ruwe nehawe ne
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:378 asserts checked
8. A sentence-final phrase of the formal noun plus ne type is almost never followed by auxiliary verbs other than nankor and a.
   「形式名詞＋ne」型の文末句の後には、助動詞はnankorおよびa以外が置かれることはほとんどない。
   distribution hokkaido usually nankora
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:378 asserts checked
9. A sentence-final phrase (bunmatsuku) consists of either a formal noun optionally followed by a verbal element, a sentence-final particle, or a combination of both.
   文末句は、形式名詞（＋動詞的要素）、終助詞、あるいはそれらの組み合わせから構成される。
   ordering ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:390 asserts checked
10. The formal nouns ruwe, siri, hawe, and humi combine with verbal elements primarily in four sentence-final phrase patterns: formal noun + ne in declarative sentences, formal noun + an in content questions, formal noun alone in polar questions and exclamations, and formal noun + un in affirmative responses.
    形式名詞 ruwe, siri, hawe, humi は動詞的要素と組み合わされ、主に「形式名詞 + ne」（平叙文）、「形式名詞 + an」（内容疑問文）、「形式名詞のみ」（対極疑問文・感嘆文）、「形式名詞 + un」（肯定の返事）の4つの形式で文末句として用いられる。
    paradigm-cell ainu usually ruwesirihawehuminean
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:392 asserts checked
11. While kusu ne ruwe ne is grammatical, *ruwe ne kusu ne is ungrammatical, demonstrating an ordering restriction on formal noun + ne not found in general verb phrases.
    kusu ne ruwe ne とは言えるが、*ruwe ne kusu ne とは言えないなどの、一般の動詞句にはない制限がある。
    distribution ainu all kusu ne ruwe neruwe ne kusu ne
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:394 asserts checked
12. Forms where tapan occupies the position of ne in sentence-final phrases like ruwe ne are widely used across dialects.
    文末句 ruwe ne などの ne の位置にこの tapan を置いた形も、広い範囲にわたってよく使われる。
    distribution ainu usually ruwe netapan
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:401 asserts checked
13. When sentence-final phrases like ruwe an? or humi! express question or exclamation, they cannot be followed by a noun phrase or a connective phrase.
    文末句のうち ruwe an? とか humi! のように、疑問や感嘆の意味になる場合は、その後に名詞句や接続句が来ることはできない。
    distribution ainu all ruwe anhumi
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:405 asserts checked

Scope over TAM and the finiteness of the embedded clause 2 claims ·8 sentences

Which TAM and agreement categories can the nominalized clause carry, and over what domain does the evidential form scope?

1. To negate a declarative sentence ending in a formal noun + ne, the verb phrase preceding the formal noun + ne is put into a negative form.
   「形式名詞 + ne」の平叙文を否定する場合、形式名詞 + ne の前に来る動詞句を否定形式にする。
   form-function ainu all ruwe nene
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:393 asserts checked
2. Unlike general verb phrases, a verb phrase followed by formal noun + ne cannot modify a common noun (e.g. *pirka ruwe ne kewtum is ungrammatical).
   一般的な動詞句とは異なり、形式名詞 + ne が後続した形式は普通名詞を修飾することはできない（例: *pirka ruwe ne kewtum とは言えない）。
   distribution ainu none ruwe ne
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:394 asserts checked

Predication type and the Tokachi stage-level constraint 1 claims ·6 sentences· 1 examples

How does the stage-level versus individual-level distinction constrain evidential noun choice in Tokachi Hokkaido Ainu?

1. In the Tokachi dialect, "hum" (non-visual sensory perception), "haw" (auditory/vocal perception), and "ru" (evidence-based definitive recognition) can be used for both stage-level and individual-level predications.
   十勝方言において、視覚以外の感覚による認識を表す hum、発声による認識を表す haw、証拠に基づく確定的な認識を表す ru は、場面レベル叙述と個体レベル叙述の両方に用いられる。
   distribution hokkaido/central/tokachi all humhawru
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked

Grammaticalization and the nominalization-to-evidential cline 2 claims ·7 sentences

What diachronic path leads from lexical nouns through complement-embedding nominalizers to evidential sentence-enders?

1. In Ainu, the nominalized evidential construction originated in a modifying clause whose head nouns (nominalizers) can be traced back to common nouns.
   アイヌ語において、名詞化証拠性構文は、主要部名詞（名詞化辞）が普通名詞に遡る連体修飾節に起源を持つ。
   diachrony hokkaido/southwest generic
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:494–495 asserts checked
2. The evidential formal nouns are grammaticalized affiliative forms of common nouns.
   各形式名詞は、普通名詞の所属形が文法化したものである。
   diachrony ainu all ruwehawesirihumi
   asserts hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked

Dialect microvariation 5 claims ·11 sentences

How does the morphosyntactic realization of the shared evidential system vary across Hokkaido dialects?

1. In the Tokachi dialect, evidential formal nouns appear in their conceptual (non-affiliative stem) forms.
   十勝方言において、証拠性形式名詞は概念形（非所属形語幹）で現れる。
   variation hokkaido/central/tokachi all rusirhawhum
   asserts hirosawa2026, takahashi2022
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked
   • takahashi2022:18.3 asserts checked
2. In Sakhalin Ainu evidential, modal, and aspectual sentences with a nominalizing word, the nominalizing word is preceded by the equative copula nee and followed by the locative copula an (v-poss nee nmz an).
   樺太アイヌ語の名詞化語を伴う証拠性・モダリティ・アスペクト文において、名詞化語は同等コピュラ nee に先行され、存在コピュラ an に後続される（v-poss nee nmz an）。
   ordering sakhalin generic neean
   asserts bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 asserts checked
3. The concept forms ru, sir, haw, and hum can also be used in sentence-final phrases, a tendency that is especially strong in the Tokachi dialect and relatively common in the Ishikari dialect.
   それぞれの概念形にあたる ru, sir, haw, hum が文末句として用いられることもあり、特に十勝方言ではその傾向が強く、石狩方言にも比較的多くみられる。
   variation hokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/central/ishikari usually rusirhawhum
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:391 asserts checked
4. The pattern formal noun + un used as an affirmative response is probably restricted to dialects around Saru, Chitose, and Horobetsu.
   肯定の返事として使われる「形式名詞 + un」という形式は、沙流、千歳、幌別あたりに限られる可能性がある。
   variation hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitosehokkaido/southwest/horobetsu exists un
   proposes nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:392 proposes checked
5. In Saru and Chitose Ainu, evidential markers appear in their possessive forms.
   沙流および千歳方言では、証拠性形式は所属形で現れる。
   variation hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose usually ruwehawehumisiri
   asserts takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.3 asserts checked

Double evidentiality 6 sentences· 1 examples

Can two evidential expressions stack within one clause, and which recurrent patterns occur in Hokkaido Ainu?

Mirativity and the admirative 9 sentences

Does the Hokkaido Ainu evidential paradigm encode mirativity, and how does this compare with Sakhalin Ainu?