121. ruwe ne — the Inferential / Visual-Trace Evidential

Place in the evidential paradigm 1 claims ·13 sentences

How does Hokkaido Ainu periphrastically mark the speaker's source of information?

1. The complex predicate ruwe ne functions as an inferential evidential ('it is a fact that').
   複合述語 ruwe ne は推論証拠性（「〜という事実である」）を表す。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest generic ruwe ne
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:494–495 asserts checked

Morphology: ruwe is ru-we, ‘the trace of —’ 5 claims ·9 sentences· 1 examples

What is the morphological composition of the evidential noun ruwe?

1. Sato (2008) treats evidential formal nouns as nominalizers in interrogative sentences, defining "ruwe" as denoting an abstract matter asserted by the speaker to be true.
   佐藤（2008）は証拠性形式名詞を「疑問文における名詞化辞」とし、ruwe を話し手によって真と断定された抽象的な事柄を表すものと説明している。
   form-function generic ruwe
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
2. When the interjection particle ta is infixed into ruwe-an (yielding ruwe-ta-an / ruwe-ta-okai), the interrogative and exclamatory nuances are intensified.
   間投助詞 ta が接中すると、疑問および感嘆の気持ちが強まる。
   form-function all taruwe-ta-anruwe-ta-okai
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
3. When tap is infixed into ruwe-an (yielding ruwe-tap-an), it expresses a strong assertion.
   tap が接中すると（ruwe-tap-an となり）強い断定を表す。
   form-function all tapruwe-tap-an
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
4. un can sometimes be used in place of tap-an (as in ruwe-un).
   tap-an の代わりに un を用いることもある（ruwe-un など）。
   variation generic untap-anruwe-un
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
5. In Refsing's description, ruwe is regarded as a nominalizer that enters into the same sentence-final constructions as hawe and siri.
   レフシングの記述において、ruwe は名詞化辞と見なされ、hawe や siri と同様の文末構文を形成する。
   analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ruwe
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked

Meaning: fact from knowledge, not raw perception 11 claims ·16 sentences· 3 examples

What semantic distinction does ruwe ne make between knowledge-based fact and raw perception?

1. The sentence-final form ruwe ne is used to make a categorical assertion meaning 'it is that...'.
   文末形式 ruwe ne は「云々したのである」という意味の確定的断定を表すために用いられる。
   form-function all ruwe neruwe-ne
   asserts kindaichi1936reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
2. In the Saru dialect, ruwe ne is used when stating a proposition with conviction based on direct experience, observation, or evidence.
   沙流方言において、ruwe ne は話し手が自身で体験・目撃したことや証拠があることなどに基づいて確信をもって述べる場合に用いられる。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru all ruwe ne
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
3. According to Kindaichi (1931), ruwe ne is a sentence-final connective particle roughly equivalent to Japanese no de aru, used to state something definitively.
   金田一（1931）によれば、ruwe neはneと結合する時は「・・・のである」というほどのことばの結びの辞で、確定的に言い据えられる。
   form-function ainu ruwe ne
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
4. In Nakagawa's (1995) dictionary of the Chitose dialect, "ruwe ne" is defined as a sentence-final particle that decisively expresses that something is an objective fact.
   中川（1995）の千歳方言辞典において、ruwe ne は客観的事実であることを断定的に表現する文末詞と定義されている。
   form-function hokkaido/chitose generic ruwe ne
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
5. ruwe ne is described in previous research as expressing events about which the speaker has certainty.
   ruwe ne は「確信」のある出来事を表すとされる。
   form-function ainu ruwe ne
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
6. In many previous studies, ruwe and ruwe ne are explained as expressions stating things with conviction or assertively, expressing objective facts assertively (Nakagawa 1995: 418).
   ruwe および ruwe ne についての多くの先行研究で、客観的事実を断定的に表現するなど（中川 1995: 418）、「確信的に」「断定的に」述べる表現であると説明されている。
   form-function ainu ruwe neruwe
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports extracted
7. Kakusei-hō asserts the content of a sentence as an established fact.
   確説法は文の内容を既定の事実として確説するものである。
   form-function generic ruwe-ne
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts extracted
8. The expression ruwe somo ne is used to express rhetorical confidence with the sense of 'was it not that...?' or 'is it not probably that...?'.
   ruwe somo ne という表現は、「〜ではなかったか」「〜ではないだろうか」というような、反語的な確信の意味で使われる。
   form-function ainu all ruwe somo ne
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:393 asserts checked
9. When ru(we) is used in a sentence-final phrase, its original meaning 'path, trace' completely disappears, and it expresses that the speaker recognizes the proposition as a fact, tending to be used when explaining something.
   ru(we) は文末句で用いられた場合、もとの「道、跡」といった意味は完全に消滅し、「話者が事実として認識していること」を表し、何かを説明する場合に用いられる傾向がある。
   form-function ainu generic ruweru
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:397 asserts checked
10. The meaning corresponding to 'it is that...' is more generally expressed by the form ruwe ne, omitting ene an i.
    「〜なのだ」に当たる意味は、より一般的には ene an i を除いた、ruwe ne という形式で表されるのが普通である。
    distribution hokkaido usually ruwe ne
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:328 asserts checked
11. The particle ruwe ('trace') with the copula ne expresses confirmatory mood, confirming the truthfulness of a statement, and is used in storytelling and more often by men than women.
    助詞ruwe（「痕跡」）はコピュラneを伴って陳述の真実性を確認する確証法を表し、物語で用いられ、女性より男性に多く使われる。
    form-function ainu generic ruweruwe-ne
    asserts shibatani1990
    • shibatani1990 asserts checked

The ruwe ne / siri ne puzzle 8 sentences

How does Hokkaido Ainu distinguish between two evidentials that both can be used for visual evidence?

Clause-final frames and illocution 5 claims ·8 sentences· 3 examples

What sentence-final frames does ruwe form with different predicates and illocutionary forces?

1. ruwe-an (plural ruwe-okai) forms interrogative or exclamatory sentences.
   ruwe-an（複数形 ruwe-okai）は疑問文または感嘆文をつくる。
   form-function all ruwe-anruwe-okai
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
2. The form ruwe esta an ne exists as an assertive sentence-final form containing the nominalizer ruwe.
   ruwe esta an ne は、名詞化辞 ruwe を含む文末の断定形式として存在する。
   existence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai exists ruwe esta an ne
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:237 asserts checked
3. The form ruwe esta an ne is very frequently used in answers to direct questions.
   ruwe esta an ne は直接疑問文に対する返答において非常に頻繁に用いられる。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually ruwe esta an ne
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:237 asserts checked
4. In short answers where the copula is the main verb, ruwe may be omitted from ruwe esta an ne.
   繋辞が本動詞である短い返答では、ruwe esta an ne の ruwe が省略されることがある。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ruwe esta an neesta an ne
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:237 asserts checked
5. The expression ruwe ene an i ne is characteristic of oral literature texts (especially prose tales), serving as an explanatory formula corresponding to 'it is that...'.
   ruwe ene an i ne は口承文芸（特に散文物語）のテキストに特有な表現で、「〜なのだ」に当たる、何かの説明に用いられる形式である。
   distribution hokkaido generic ruwe ene an i ne
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:328 asserts checked

Scope over TAM and the finiteness of the embedded clause 8 sentences· 1 examples

What is the scope of the evidential ruwe ne over tense, aspect, and mood in the embedded clause?

Predication type: the Tokachi constraint 1 claims ·8 sentences· 1 examples

What constraint on predication type applies to the visual evidential sir in Tokachi dialect?

1. With individual-level predication, the evidential nominalizer ru, which is unmarked regarding information type, is used even when the information is visual.
   情報タイプについて無標である証拠性の名詞化辞ruは、視覚情報であっても個体レベル述語とともに用いられる。
   distribution hokkaido/central/tokachi generic ru
   asserts takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.6 asserts anchored

Mirativity and double evidentiality 8 claims ·7 sentences· 1 examples

How does Hokkaido Ainu express mirativity separately from evidentiality?

1. The construction ruwe ne functions to mark new information accompanied by a psychological attitude in which the speaker prompts the addressee to recognize the content.
   ruwe ne には、話し手が聞き手に内容の認識を促す心的態度を含んだ新情報を標示する機能がある。
   form-function ainu ruwe ne
   asserts hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked
2. The construction ruwe ne functions to present contradictory types of information: both new information and old information (summarization).
   ruwe ne には新情報と旧情報（統括）という反対の性質の情報を提示する機能がある。
   form-function ainu ruwe ne
   asserts hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked
3. Among types of new information presentation, ruwe ne has the function of presenting 'hard-to-get information' such as personal information.
   ruwe ne は、新情報提示のなかでも、個人情報などの「得難い情報」を提示する機能をもっている。
   form-function ainu generic ruwe ne
   asserts hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked
4. By attaching to an utterance based on information once processed within the speaker, ruwe ne allows the speaker to utter the proposition without explicitly specifying the true source of the information.
   ruwe ne は一度発話者の中で処理された情報にもとづく発言につくことになり、内容の本当の情報源を明示せずに発話できる。
   form-function ainu generic ruwe ne
   proposes hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 proposes checked
5. Through ruwe ne, a speaker can declare that even content they could not have directly experienced (such as events in a tale) belongs to their own territory of information, and state it definitively/confidently without using hearsay forms.
   ruwe ne により、発話者が直接体験し得ない内容（物語中のできごとなど）についても自身のなわばり内にあると宣言し、伝聞の形式などを用いず（確定的・確信的に）述べることができる。
   form-function ainu generic ruwe ne
   proposes hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 proposes checked
6. In the ruwe ne construction, information that also falls within the hearer's territory of information is treated as topic integration/summary, whereas information not in the hearer's territory is treated as new information.
   ruwe ne では、聞き手のなわ張り内にもある情報は「統括」などとして、聞き手のなわ張り内にはない情報は「新情報」として扱われる。
   form-function ainu generic ruwe ne
   proposes hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 proposes checked
7. The evidential form ruwe ne indicates new information in discourse.
   証拠性形式 ruwe ne は談話において新情報を表す。
   form-function ainu generic ruwe ne
   asserts hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked
8. The construction ruwe ne can be analyzed as a form that unconditionally declares that the information is within the speaker's information territory, analogous to Japanese no da.
   ruwe ne は、日本語の「のだ」と同様に、その情報が話者の情報のなわ張り内にあることを無条件に宣言する形式として位置づけられる。
   analysis ainu generic ruwe ne
   proposes hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 proposes checked

Diachrony, dialect microvariation, and a Sakhalin contrast 5 claims ·11 sentences· 2 examples

What is the diachronic development of the evidential ruwe from a noun meaning 'track'?

1. In Ishikari Ainu, the inferential evidential ru-ne has undergone phonological erosion compared to Chitose ruwe né.
   石狩アイヌ語の推量証拠性標識 ru-ne は、千歳の ruwe né と比較して音韻的縮約（侵食）を起こしている。
   variation hokkaido/central/ishikarihokkaido/chitose all ru-neruwene
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:500–501 asserts checked
2. ruwe is pronounced rūhe in Sakhalin and is originally the concrete (affiliative) form of the noun ru meaning 'footprint, trace, path'.
   ruwe は樺太では rūhe と言い、本来は「跡」「足跡」「痕跡」「路」等を意味する名詞 ru の具体形である。
   diachrony generic ruwerūheru
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts extracted
3. The forms ruwe ne and ruwe ne na are by far the most widely used expressions of the assertive mood in the Shizunai dialect material.
   静内方言の資料において、ruwe ne および ruwe ne na は断定法を表す表現として群を抜いて広く用いられている。
   frequency hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually ruwe neruwe ne na
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:237 asserts checked
4. The etymological origin of the element es in ruwe esta an ne is not clear.
   ruwe esta an ne の構成要素 es の起源は明らかでない。
   other hokkaido/southwest/shizunai es
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:237 asserts checked
5. In the Chitose dialect, ruwe is used when a state is already in existence or when an action is not in progress at the reference time.
   千歳方言において、ruweは状態がすでに存在している場合や、動作があっても基準時において進行中でない場合に用いられる。
   form-function hokkaido/chitose generic ruwe
   reports takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.6 reports checked