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A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Knowledge base · Part XIII — Nominalization, Relativization, and Complementation

101. The Nominalizers -p/-pe and -i/-hi (Participant, Event, Place, Fact)

How does the language nominalize clauses to refer to participants, events, places, or facts?

その言語は節を名詞化して参与者、出来事、場所、事実を指すのにどのようにするか。

The participant nominalizer -p/-pe ('the one that') and the abstract/event nominalizer -i/-hi ('the V-ing / place / time / fact that'): argument-role readings, the headless-relative continuum, internal clause TAM/person, and the insubordination of nominalized clauses.

candidate topic from the first edition topic:complex/nominalization-p-pe read this topic as text

67claims
145statements
23sources
8examples
5sections
42first-edition sentences

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Forms mentioned

p 12pe 12hi 3-pe 2aep 2-p 1poro-p 1pon-pe 1a=e p 1okay pe 1pa 1wa 1-p(e) 1pirka-p 1ray-pe 1[(np…) V p/pe] 1ruwe 1siri 1hawe 1humi 1a=e-p 1a=e-suke-p 1sukemakiri 1e- 1ani 1kuni p 1sekor 1ruwe ne 1uske 1[clause] p/pe 1[clause] p/pe ne 1wa(no) 1ne 1

Claims

A claim is one proposition; under it stand the statements of each source, with the stance that source takes. Claims are grouped by a model from the extracted statements and carry that status until reviewed.

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Form and place among the formal nouns 34 claims ·10 sentences

What are the forms of the nominalizers and how do they relate to formal nouns?

  1. Certain nominalizers can be modified by adnouns.
    一部の名詞化辞は連体詞による修飾を受けることができる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai some pekurutar
    asserts refsing1986
  2. The nominalizer pe drops its vowel to become p after vowel-final stems.
    名詞化辞 pe は母音末尾形式の後で末尾母音を脱落させて p となる。
    alternation hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all pep
    asserts refsing1986
  3. The nominalizing suffix is -p after vowels and -pe after consonants, meaning 'thing', 'person', or 'matter'.
    名詞化接尾辞は母音の後では-p、子音の後では-peとなり、「物」「者」「事」を意味する。
    alternation ainu all -p-pe
    asserts kindaichi1936
  4. When the formal noun p is placed after a sentence-final phrase, it usually functions as a conjunctive particle rather than forming a noun phrase.
    文末句の後に形式名詞pを後続させた場合、名詞句を構成するというより、pが接続助詞として働く場合の方が多い。
    form-function hokkaido usually p
    asserts nakagawa2024
  5. The nominalizing suffix -i in Ainu possesses different allomorphs across dialects and forms.
    アイヌ語の名詞化接尾辞 -i は、方言や形式に応じて異なる異形態をもつ。
    alternation ainu all -i
    asserts nam2021
  6. Synchronically, -i rather than -hi is considered to be the main or basic variant of the nominalizing suffix.
    共時的には、名詞化接尾辞の主たる基本的異形態は -hi ではなく -i であるとされる。
    alternation ainu -i-hi
    reports nam2021
  7. The historically original form of the nominalizing suffix -i / -hi is the generic noun ihi or hi 'thing, place, time'.
    名詞化接尾辞 -i / -hi の歴史的な原形は、形式名詞 ihi または hi（「こと、ところ、とき」）であるとされる。
    diachrony ainu -i-hiihihi
    reports nam2021
  8. A construction nominalized by -h(i) can be analyzed as a modifying construction where the clause or verb modifies the generic noun h(i).
    -h(i) によって名詞化された構文は、基底の節または動詞が名詞 h(i) を修飾する構造として分析できる。
    analysis ainu generic -h(i)h(i)
    reports nam2021
  9. As a rule, the nominalizing suffix -(h)i retains h when preceded by a vowel and lacks h when preceded by a consonant.
    名詞化接尾辞 -(h)i は原則として、先行要素が母音で終わる場合には h を持ち、子音で終わる場合には h を欠く。
    alternation ainu usually -(h)i
    reports nam2021
  10. The Ainu nominalizing suffix and construct suffix both originate from the generic noun (i)hi 'thing, place, time', undergoing a parallel phonological development from (i)hi to -i.
    アイヌ語の名詞化接尾辞と所属接尾辞はともに一般名詞 (i)hi「もの、場所、時」に由来し、(i)hi から -i への共通の音変化を経ている。
    diachrony ainu generic -(h)i-i(i)hi
    asserts nam2021
  11. Nominalizers in Ainu function to derive nominal expressions out of verbal ones.
    アイヌ語の名詞化辞（nominalizer）は動詞表現から名詞表現を作り出す機能を持つ。
    form-function ainu generic
    asserts refsing1986
  12. Both hawe and siri are frequently used in nominalizations that can form part of or constitute a sentence-final form.
    hawe と siri はともに、文末形式の一部を成すかそれ自体で文末形式を構成する名詞化節において頻繁に用いられる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually hawesiri
    asserts refsing1986
  13. Refsing includes katu among the nominalizers and finds no examples of it entering into sentence-final constructions like ruwe, hawe, or siri.
    レフシングは katu を名詞化辞に含めており、ruwe、hawe、siri のような文末構文を形成する用例は見出していない。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic katu
    asserts refsing1986
  14. The combination pe ne functions as an assertive sentence-final form.
    pe ne は文末の断定形式として機能する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic pe ne
    asserts refsing1986
  15. Tamura describes hike only as a semantically neutral nominalizer and omits it from coordinative conjunctional particles.
    田村は hike を意味的に中立な名詞化辞としてのみ記述し、並列的「接続助詞」には含めていない。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/saru hike
    reports refsing1986
  16. In the Shizunai dialect data of the author's informant, hike never occurs in the nominalizing function described by Chiri.
    著者のインフォーマントの静内方言の談話において、知里の記述した名詞化辞としての hike の用例は見られない。
    absence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai none hike
    asserts refsing1986
  17. Chiri lists another (h)ike that attaches to 'adjectives' to function as a nominalizer, as in poro-ike or pirka-ike.
    知里は「形容詞」に付いて名詞化辞として機能する別の (h)ike（例：poro-ike、pirka-ike）も挙げている。
    form-function ainu (h)ikeporo-ikepirka-ike
    reports refsing1986
  18. Nominalizers in Ainu are noun-like bound words that can only occur with adnominal modification.
    アイヌ語の名詞化辞は、連体修飾を伴ってのみ生起しうる名詞的な結合形式である。
    distribution ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  19. The initial [h] of the nominalizer hi is dropped after consonants, and also after vowels in rapid speech.
    名詞化辞hiの語頭の[h]は子音の後で、また早口言葉では母音の後でも脱落する。
    alternation hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic hi-i
    asserts refsing1986
  20. The nominalizer hi is used in the formation of some personal pronouns.
    名詞化辞hiは一部の人称代名詞の形成にも用いられる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai exists hi
    asserts refsing1986
  21. Pe may be modified by demonstrative pronouns, as in taan pe 'this thing/guy'.
    peはtaan pe「これ／このやつ」のように指示代名詞によって修飾されうる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai exists petaan pe
    asserts refsing1986
  22. With numbers, pe functions as a counter for things, as in sinep 'one thing' and tup 'two things'.
    数詞とともに用いられると、peはsinep「1つのもの」、tup「2つのもの」のように事物を数える助数詞として機能する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic pe-psineptup
    asserts refsing1986
  23. Adnominal modification of haw(e) 'voice' and hum(i) 'sound' is idiosyncratic because it does not involve simple relativizing extraction, but rather resembles nominalizers.
    haw(e)「声」、hum(i)「音」の連体修飾は、名詞の単純な「抜き出し」によるものではなく「名詞化辞」に近い点で特殊である。
    analysis hokkaido generic hawhawehumhumi
    asserts sato2008
  24. Nouns that nominalize a clause to form a content clause (expressing 'that...', 'the content that...') are called nominalizers (meishikaji).
    文を名詞化して「内容節」（「〜という事，〜という内容」という意味を表す表現）を作る機能を持つ名詞を「名詞化辞」と呼ぶ。
    terminology ainu generic
    asserts sato2008
  25. The nominalizer humi functions to denote 'sound' or 'feeling/impression'.
    名詞化辞 humi は「音、感じ」を表す。
    form-function hokkaido generic humi
    asserts sato2008
  26. The nominalizer katu expresses 'way, manner, appearance'.
    名詞化辞 katu は「仕方、様、方」を表す。
    form-function hokkaido generic katu
    asserts sato2008
  27. The nominalizer kunak expresses '(thinking/saying) that probably, intending to'.
    名詞化辞 kunak は「だろうと、つもりと」を表す。
    form-function hokkaido generic kunak
    asserts sato2008
  28. The nominalizer kuni expresses '(thinking/saying) that probably, intending to'.
    名詞化辞 kuni は「だろうと、つもりと」を表す。
    form-function hokkaido generic kuni
    asserts sato2008
  29. The morpheme p/pe also functions as a formal noun.
    p/pe には形式名詞としての用法もある。
    membership hokkaido generic ppe
    asserts sato2008
  30. The nominalizer ruwe denotes 'trace, (abstract) fact/matter asserted by the speaker'.
    名詞化辞 ruwe は「跡、（話し手によって断定された抽象的な）こと、の」を表す。
    form-function hokkaido generic ruwe
    asserts sato2008
  31. ruwe is used for pre-existing states, and for actions that are not in progress at the reference time point.
    既に存在する状態の場合、および動作であっても基準となる時点で進行中の動作ではない場合に ruwe が用いられる。
    distribution hokkaido generic ruwe
    asserts sato2008
  32. The nominalizer siri denotes 'manner, appearance of an action in progress at the reference time point'.
    名詞化辞 siri は「（基準となる時点で進行中の動作の）有様、様子」を表す。
    form-function hokkaido generic siri
    asserts sato2008
  33. i functions as a formal noun meaning 'thing / fact / matter'.
    i は「事」を意味する形式名詞である。
    form-function i
    asserts sato2008
  34. The suffixes -p(e) and -i function productively not just as lexical derivational suffixes but as phrasal and clausal nominalizers.
    名詞化接尾辞、特に -p(e) と -i は、単なる語彙的派生接尾辞にとどまらず、句や節の名詞化接尾辞としても極めて生産的に機能する。
    form-function ainu generic -p-pe-i
    asserts shibatani1990

Participant nominalization: the one who, the thing that 9 claims ·12 sentences· 5 examples

How does the language form participant nominalizations meaning 'the one who' or 'the thing that'?

  1. The most commonly used complementizers are neutral hi/i and pe/p, or the epistemic complementizer kun-i(-hi).
    最も一般的に用いられる補文標識は、中立的な hi/i および pe/p、あるいは認識的な kun-i(-hi) である。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest generic hiipepkunikunihi
    asserts bugaeva2012
  2. In Hokkaido Ainu, the nominalizers hi 'thing/place/time' and pe 'thing/person' are commonly employed in clausal nominalizations.
    北海道アイヌ語において、名詞化辞hi「もの／場所／時」およびpe「もの／人」は節の名詞化において一般的に用いられる。
    distribution hokkaido generic hipe
    asserts bugaeva2016
  3. Because -p and -pe can refer to animals and inanimates, using them to refer to human beings carries a somewhat blunt tone, whereas -kur always carries an honorific nuance and can even refer to a deity.
    -p, -peは動物や無生物にも用いられるため人に用いると幾分ぞんざいな語気を有するのに対し、-kurは常に尊敬の気持を含み、場合によっては「神」の意味にまでなる。
    form-function ainu generic -p-pe-kur
    asserts kindaichi1936
  4. The nominalizer pe is mostly used for unspecified concrete things or persons, but it may also refer to abstract matters like hi.
    名詞化辞peは主に不特定の具体物や人を表すのに用いられるが、hiのように抽象的な事柄を表すこともある。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually pe
    asserts refsing1986
  5. When a verb is used nominally as the object of a main verb (as in mokor k-esinki), it does not take a subject personal affix.
    mokor k-esinki のように本動詞の目的語として名詞的に用いられた場合にも、動詞には主格人称接辞が付かない。
    distribution hokkaido generic mokor
    asserts sato2008
  6. The nominalizer meaning 'thing' is realized as p after vowels and as pe after consonants.
    「もの」を表す名詞化辞は、母音の後で p、子音の後で pe と現れる。
    alternation hokkaido all ppe
    asserts sato2008
  7. When p/pe is placed sentence-finally to nominalize a sentence, it often forms a more emotional expression conveying regret or surprise.
    p/pe を文末に置いて文を名詞化すると、遺憾や驚きを伴った、より感情的な表現をなすことが多い。
    form-function hokkaido usually ppe
    asserts sato2008
  8. The expression pe ne ('it is that...') is used with emotive force, conveying an attitude of 'above all, after all'.
    pe ne「ものだ」は、「なによりもまず, なんといっても」のような感情を込めた表現で用いられる。
    form-function ainu generic pe ne
    asserts sato2008
  9. p functions as a nominalizer meaning 'thing / person / one'.
    p は「もの」を意味する名詞化接尾辞・形式名詞である。
    form-function p
    asserts sato2008
tapan kina a=e p ne toan kina somo a=e p ne
this plant 4.A=eat NMLZ COP that plant NEG 4.A=eat NMLZ COP
‘This plant is one that people eat; that plant is one that people do not eat.’
ilcaa1976 SAR Kawakami Matsuko, uwepeker 14 (first half) [aa-irc/020#27]
a=se wa okay pe
4.A=carry.on.back CONJ exist.PL NMLZ
‘the things one is carrying along’
nakagawa2024:512 HK
a=e-suke-p
4.A=APPL-cook-NMLZ
‘kitchen utensil’
nakagawa2024:507kayano1996:281 SAR
ani usey a=ku p
INS hot.water 4.A=drink NMLZ
‘a thing to drink hot water with’
nakagawa2024:504 HK
ani cep ku=tuypa makiri
INS fish 1SG.A=cut knife
‘the knife I cut fish with’
ijas2023 constructed HK

Event and fact nominalization 8 claims ·4 sentences· 3 examples

How does the language nominalize a complete clause as an event or fact?

  1. The nominalizer hi derives nominal expressions that always refer to abstract matters.
    名詞化辞 hi は常に抽象的な事柄を指示する名詞表現を派生する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all hi
    asserts refsing1986
  2. The nominalizing suffix -i (which also sounds like -hi after vowels) forms nouns from verbs and adjectives meaning 'the doing of an action', 'the place of an action', or 'the time of an action'.
    名詞法語尾-i（母音の後では-hiとも響く）は動詞・形容詞から「すること」「する処」「する時」などを意味する名詞を作る。
    form-function ainu generic -i-hi
    asserts kindaichi1936
  3. When hi is translated as 'place', the case particle marking the relation to the verb cannot be omitted and must be expressed (e.g. by oro ta or by the applicative prefix e-), forming a relative clause construction, whereas when hi is translated as 'time' or 'matter', it functions directly as a complementizer without such a constraint.
    hi が「ところ（場所）」を表す場合には、動詞句内の格関係を明示する oro ta や適用接頭辞 e- などが不可欠であって関係文の主部となるのに対し、「とき」「こと」と訳される場合にはそのような制約がなく補文標識として機能する。
    distribution hokkaido generic hi
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. In the majority of cases, the nominalizer hi follows verbs associated with speaking or listening.
    大半の場合、名詞化辞hiは「話す」または「聞く」ことに関する動詞の後に続く。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually hi
    asserts refsing1986
  5. The nominalizer hi (which can become i after a consonant) means 'fact, that, time', functioning at a more abstract level than ruwe.
    名詞化辞 hi（子音の後で i になることもある）は「こと、の、時」を意味し、ruwe よりさらに抽象的である。
    alternation hokkaido generic hii
    asserts sato2008
  6. When hi is used together with case particles, it expresses temporal points, such as hi ta 'at the time when' and hi wano 'from the time when'.
    hi が格助詞と共に用いられると、hi ta「時に」、hi wano「時から」のように「時点」の意味になる。
    form-function hokkaido generic hi tahi wano
    asserts sato2008
  7. While hi alone forms a simple clausal nominalization, co-occurring with the demonstrative adverb ene turns it into a noun clause expressing the concrete 'manner/way' of carrying out the clause's action.
    hi のみだと文の単純な名詞化であるが、指示副詞 ene を用いるとその文の内容が行われる具体的な「仕方、やり方」という意味の名詞節になる。
    form-function hokkaido generic enehi
    asserts sato2008
  8. When the demonstrative ene is present, the nominalizer hi 'thing, fact' frequently appears after the verb.
    ene があると動詞の後に名詞化辞 hi「事」が現れることが多い。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/saru usually enehi
    asserts sato2008
ne kusu haweoka wa cis pa p ka a=erampewtek
COP because speak.PL CONJ cry PL NMLZ even 4.A=not.understand
‘I did not even understand why they were crying.’
nakagawa2024:512–513 HK
ratcitara rok=an pe ne na
quietly sit=4.S NMLZ COP FIN
‘One should sit quietly.’
sato2008:177 CHI
a=e=túskote kuni p ne ru-we ne na
4.A=2SG.O=tie.up PURP NMLZ COP track-POSS COP FIN
‘You will surely be tied up.’
ilcaa1976 SAR Kawakami Matsuko, isoytak monologue 2 [aa-irc/004#130]

Arity and the boundary between the two uses 1 claims ·3 sentences

How does the valence of the clause determine whether the nominalization refers to a participant or an event?

  1. When p ~ pe refers to a concrete entity, it serves as the head of a relative clause, but when referring to an abstract state of affairs, it functions as a complementizer.
    p〜pe は具体的な「もの」を指している場合には関係文の主部として用いられるが、抽象度が高い場合には補文標識となる。
    form-function hokkaido generic ppe
    asserts nakagawa2024

Analyses and open questions 15 claims ·13 sentences

What are the different analyses of these nominalizers and what questions remain open?

  1. Sentences placed before a nominalizer are embedded as relational adjuncts to the predicate.
    文は名詞化辞の直前に置かれることで、主節述語に対する関係付加部として埋め込まれる。
    form-function ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  2. Zero-nominalization reflects the oldest diachronic stage of nominalization in Ainu.
    ゼロ名詞化はアイヌ語における名詞化の最も古い通時的段階を反映している。
    diachrony ainu generic
    proposes bugaeva2016
  3. The nominalization strategy of adding a nominalizing word proliferates in Hokkaido Ainu and represents a later stage than zero-nominalization.
    名詞化語を後続させる名詞化ストラテジーは北海道アイヌ語で盛んに用いられ、ゼロ名詞化よりも後の段階を表している。
    diachrony hokkaido generic
    proposes bugaeva2016
  4. Sakhalin Ainu employs non-finite verbal forms containing possessive-style marking as a nominalization strategy, which can also be used as non-embedded finite structures in a broad range of presuppositional contexts.
    樺太アイヌ語では、所属形のような標示を含む非主節動詞形が名詞化ストラテジーとして用いられ、幅広い前提文脈において埋め込まれない主節（主節述語）構造としても機能しうる。
    form-function sakhalin generic
    proposes bugaeva2016
  5. Unlike Hokkaido Ainu, West Coast Sakhalin Ainu has developed a special clausal nominalization strategy attaching the nominal possessive suffix to the verb, which can also occur as a non-embedded form in presuppositional contexts.
    北海道アイヌ語とは異なり、西海岸樺太アイヌ語では名詞の所属接尾辞を動詞に付加する特殊な節名詞化ストラテジーが発達しており、これは前提文脈において埋め込まれない形式としても現れうる。
    diachrony sakhalin generic
    asserts bugaeva2016
  6. Verbal forms regarded as nominalizations in Hokkaido Ainu do not bear any non-finite morphology, and nominalization is associated solely with the use of a nominalizing word.
    北海道アイヌ語において名詞化と見なされる動詞形は非定形形態論を持たず、「名詞化」は名詞化語の使用にのみ結びついている。
    absence hokkaido all
    asserts bugaeva2016
  7. Nominalizing words in Hokkaido Ainu are distinct from genuine nominalizers because they are not used for deriving adnominal forms.
    北海道アイヌ語の名詞化語は、連体形を派生するために用いられないため、厳密には真の名詞化辞とは区別される。
    analysis hokkaido generic
    asserts bugaeva2016
  8. Sakhalin Ainu possesses non-finite possessive-style marking on verbs (V-poss) that is not found elsewhere in Ainu.
    樺太アイヌ語には、アイヌ語の他の地域には見られない動詞の非定形所属形標示（V-poss）が存在する。
    existence sakhalin exists
    asserts bugaeva2016
  9. In Sakhalin Ainu, V-poss nominalized forms occur mostly in the same contexts as the nominalizing words of Hokkaido Ainu.
    樺太アイヌ語において、V-poss名詞化形は北海道アイヌ語の名詞化語とおおむね同じ文脈において生起する。
    distribution sakhalinhokkaido usually
    proposes bugaeva2016
  10. In Sakhalin Ainu main clauses, sentence-final V-poss without a copula is typically found across a wide range of presuppositional contexts, including assertions, polar questions, and content questions.
    樺太アイヌ語の主節において、コピュラを伴わない文末の V-poss は、断定、真偽疑問文、疑問詞疑問文といった前提的文脈において典型的に見られる。
    distribution sakhalin usually
    asserts bugaeva2016
  11. In Sakhalin Ainu discourse, the nominalizing verbal form V-poss refers to old information, whereas finite verbal forms refer to new information.
    樺太アイヌ語の談話において、名詞化形 V-poss は旧情報を表すのに対して、定形動詞形は新情報を表す。
    form-function sakhalin generic
    proposes bugaeva2016
  12. In Ainu, the development of nominalized structures has occurred in a cycle in which independent structures gradually developed into dependent structures through embedding, and the dependent structures subsequently turned back into independent structures.
    アイヌ語において、名詞化構造の発達は循環的に生起しており、埋め込みを通じて独立構造が次第に従属構造へと発達し、その後従属構造が再び独立構造へと戻った。
    diachrony ainu generic
    asserts bugaeva2016
  13. The use of p ~ pe as a conjunctive particle meaning 'although' developed out of its complementizer usage.
    接続助詞としての p〜pe「〜したが」は、補文標識の用法から発展したものと見ることができる。
    diachrony hokkaido all ppe
    proposes nakagawa2024
  14. Any complete sentence in Ainu may be either adnominalized by being placed before a noun or nominalized by being placed before a nominalizer.
    アイヌ語の任意の完全文は、名詞の直前に置かれることで連体修飾節化されるか、または名詞化辞の直前に置かれることで名詞化されうる。
    distribution ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  15. Nominalized adjunct clauses are rarely marked with case postpositions.
    名詞化された付加語節が格後置詞で標示されることは稀である。
    frequency hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually
    asserts refsing1986