34. Nominal Subclasses and Obligatorily-Possessed (Bound) Nouns

The four noun subclasses 11 claims ·10 sentences

How are nouns divided into four subclasses based on independent use and relative clause head ability?

1. Nouns are classified on morphosyntactic grounds into three major subclasses: common nouns, relational nouns, and bound nouns.
   名詞はその形態統語的性質に基づき、普通名詞、位置名詞（関係名詞）、所属名詞（不完全名詞）の3大下位類に分類される。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:470–471 asserts checked
2. Ainu has a nominal classification distinguishing ordinary nouns from locative nouns.
   アイヌ語には普通名詞と位置名詞を区別する名詞分類が存在する。
   existence ainu
   asserts bugaeva2022
   • bugaeva2022:1.1 asserts checked
3. Nouns in Ainu have no grammatical gender, only natural sex.
   名詞には文法的性の現象はなく、自然の性のみが存在する。
   absence all
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
4. For animals, sexes are distinguished by prefixing pinne for male and matne for female.
   動物にあっては、男性（雄）にpinne、女性（雌）にmatneを冠して区別する。
   form-function all pinnematne
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
5. Just as the noun ainu means 'human' in contrast to kamui ('god') but 'man' in contrast to menoko ('woman'), the element -kur means 'male' in contrast to -mat.
   ainuという語がkamuiに対して「人」を意味しmenokoに対して「男」を意味するのと同様に、-kurも-matに対しては「男性」を意味する。
   form-function ainu generic -kur-mat
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
6. In Hidaka, the words for male spider and female spider are ka-erikin-kur and ka-erikin-mat, respectively.
   日高方言では、雄蜘蛛と雌蜘蛛をそれぞれ ka-erikin-kur、ka-erikin-mat という。
   variation hokkaido/southwest/shizunaihokkaido/southwest/samanihokkaido/southwest/mukawahokkaido/southwest/saru generic ka-erikin-kurka-erikin-mat
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
7. Nouns placed after other nouns to qualify them, often expressing an indefinite plural, are called adnominal post-words (連体後詞) and are also used as independent nouns.
   名詞に後置して名詞に何らかの限定を加え、不定複数を表す場合が多い語を連体後詞と呼び、これらは独立した名詞としても使われる。
   terminology sakhalin generic
   asserts murasaki2025
   • murasaki2025:102 asserts checked
8. Four subcategories of nouns can be identified through five morphological and syntactic features: inflection, possessive case person affixes, independence, possible modifiers, and locativity.
   名詞の4つの下位区分（普通名詞、位置名詞、代名詞、形式名詞）は、語形変化、所属格人称接辞、自立性、可能な修飾語、場所性の5つの形態・統語的特徴によって識別できる。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.3 asserts anchored
9. Ainu nouns are classified morphologically and affixally into common nouns, locative/relational nouns, pronouns, and formal nouns.
   アイヌ語の名詞は概念形と所属形などの形態論的な区別や人称接辞のとりかたから、普通名詞、位置名詞、代名詞、形式名詞に分けられる。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:117 asserts checked
10. Common nouns, long forms of positional nouns, and pronouns can independently serve as the subject or object of a verb.
    普通名詞、位置名詞の長形、代名詞は単独で動詞の主語・目的語になることができる。
    distribution ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:214 asserts checked
11. Karafuto dialects distinguish ordinary nouns from locative nouns, and many nouns in both classes have both a non-specific conceptual form and a specific, concrete affiliative form.
    樺太方言では普通名詞と位置名詞が区別され、両クラスの多くの名詞に非特定的な概念形と特定的・具象的な所属形の両方が存在する。
    existence sakhalin
    asserts tangiku2022
    • tangiku2022:9.4 asserts checked

Common nouns: concept form and affiliative form 13 claims ·8 sentences· 3 examples

What two forms do common nouns have, and what is the function of each?

1. Both ordinary nouns and locative nouns change their forms through the attachment of suffixes to their basic forms.
   普通名詞と位置名詞はともに、基本形に接尾辞が付加されることによって語形が変化する。
   existence ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.3 asserts checked
2. All ordinary nouns have an underlying affiliative form that surfaces when semantic conditions such as a material-product relationship are met.
   すべての普通名詞は基底において所属形を持つ性質があり、材料と製品の関係などの意味条件が満たされれば表面化する。
   analysis ainu all cise-he
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.4 asserts anchored
3. In Ainu, ordinary nouns have two forms: the conceptual form and the affiliative form.
   アイヌ語において、普通名詞には概念形と所属形の2つの形式がある。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.7 asserts checked
4. The conceptual form of ordinary nouns generally does not possess the syntactic function of <location>.
   普通名詞の概念形は一般に〈場所〉の統語的機能を持たない。
   distribution ainu usually
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.7 asserts checked
5. The concept form of a common noun can form a noun phrase by itself and thus has an arity of -1, whereas the affiliative form requires an antecedent and thus has an arity of 0.
   普通名詞の概念形はそれ単独で名詞句を構成できるためアリティは -1 であるのに対し、所属形は先行詞を要求するためアリティは 0 である。
   form-function ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:262 asserts checked
6. General nouns can function as sentence subject or object and may be followed by case postpositions.
   普通名詞は文の主語または目的語になり得、格後置詞の後続を受けることができる。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:75 asserts checked
7. General nouns may be preceded by adnouns and adnominalized sentences, and some may take noun suffixes and/or noun prefixes.
   普通名詞は連体詞や連体節の先行を受けることができ、一部は名詞接尾辞や名詞接頭辞を取り得る。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:75 asserts checked
8. General nouns are independent free forms that may perform the role of sentence subject by themselves.
   一般名詞は独立した自由形式であり、単独で文の主語の役割を果たすことができる。
   distribution all
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:81 asserts checked
9. General nouns are unmarked for gender.
   一般名詞には文法的な性の標示がない。
   absence all
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:81 asserts checked
10. Quantity nouns can all appear in apposition to the noun they modify or function as pure nouns.
    数量名詞はすべて、修飾する名詞と同格になることも、純粋な名詞として機能することもできる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all poronnoponnoopittainne
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986 asserts checked
11. Among quantity nouns, only poronno and ponno occur in adnominal position.
    数量名詞の中で、poronno と ponno だけが連体位でも現れる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai measured poronnoponno
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986 asserts checked
12. Only general nouns may be modified by adnouns or take noun prefixes, pronominal prefixes, or noun suffixes.
    連体詞によって修飾されたり、名詞接頭辞、人称接頭辞、名詞接尾辞を取ることができるのは普通名詞だけである。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:274 asserts checked
13. topa is a noun meaning 'group, flock, school, herd' and can be used for both animals and humans.
    topa は「群れ」を意味する名詞であり、動物にも人間にも用いることができる。
    distribution generic topa
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:289 asserts checked

Inalienable nouns and the bound class 11 claims ·6 sentences

Which semantic fields favor the inalienable construction for possessed nouns?

1. Bound nouns cannot occur independently and must be modified by a determiner, a noun, or a relative clause.
   所属名詞（結合名詞）は単独では生起できず、限定詞、名詞、または関係節による修飾を必要とする。
   distribution ainu all
   asserts bugaeva2012, bugaeva2015
   • bugaeva2012:470–471 asserts checked
   • bugaeva2015:47 asserts checked
2. Certain bound nouns, including kur, utar, us(i)(ke)(he), pe/p, hike, and hi/i, occur more frequently as relative clause heads than common nouns.
   kur、utar、us(i)(ke)(he)、pe/p、hike、hi/i などの結合名詞は、普通名詞よりも関係節主要部として高頻度で用いられる。
   frequency ainu generic kurutarusikeusipep
   asserts bugaeva2015
   • bugaeva2015:47 asserts checked
3. Obligatorily possessed nouns almost never occur without possessive morphology.
   義務的所有名詞は所有形態素を伴わずに現れることがほとんどない。
   distribution ainu usually
   asserts bugaeva2021poss
   • bugaeva2021poss asserts checked
4. Ainu uses unspecified possessor and antipassive morphology as non-possessed noun (NPN) morphology, allowing an obligatorily possessed noun to be used without a specified possessor or an overt possessor.
   アイヌ語は不特定所有者および逆受動形態論を非所有名詞形態論として用い、義務的所有名詞を特定所有者や明示的な所有者なしで使用できるようにしている。
   form-function ainu generic
   asserts bugaeva2021poss
   • bugaeva2021poss asserts checked
5. Without an overt personal prefix, the default interpretation of an obligatorily possessed noun is that the possessor is third person.
   人称接頭辞がない場合、義務的所有名詞の所属主は三人称であるとデフォルトで解釈される。
   form-function ainu generic
   asserts bugaeva2022
   • bugaeva2022:1.5 asserts checked
6. Ainu inalienable nouns include body part terms and their semantic extensions, including bodily secretions, physical strength, disposition, home, and clothing.
   アイヌ語の譲渡不能名詞には、身体部位名詞および分泌物・体力・気質・住居・衣服などのその意味的拡張が含まれる。
   membership ainu generic tek-ekem-ihinupe-heetor-okiror-okewtum-u
   asserts bugaeva2022
   • bugaeva2022:1.5 asserts checked
7. The nouns si and osoma 'excrement' and okuyma 'urine' are encoded as alienably possessed nouns.
   si、osoma「糞」および okuyma「尿」は譲渡可能所有名詞として記号化される。
   membership ainu all siosomaokuyma
   asserts bugaeva2022
   • bugaeva2022:1.5 asserts checked
8. In riddles, obligatorily possessed nouns are cited with the fourth-person/first-person plural inclusive transitive subject prefix a- rather than in their conceptual form.
   謎々において、義務的所有名詞は概念形ではなく、一人称複数包括／四人称他動詞主語接頭辞 a- を伴う所属形で用いられる。
   distribution ainu generic a-
   asserts bugaeva2022
   • bugaeva2022:1.5 asserts checked
9. Bound noun roots such as me- 'cold' and mon- 'hand' have an arity of -1 in the calculation of compound word arity, despite not being independent words.
   √me「寒さ」や √mon「手」などの名詞語根は単独で単語にならないが、合成語のアリティ計算においては普通名詞と同様に -1 として扱われる。
   analysis ainu generic me-mon-
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:263 asserts checked
10. The noun ruye or ruyehe only exists in the belonging form.
    名詞 ruye または ruyehe は所属形でのみ存在する。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all ruyeruyehe
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:87 asserts checked
11. Nineteenth-century Japanese records preserve names of ethnic groups derived from the Ainu element -kur, meaning 'people'.
    19世紀の日本語記録には、「人」を意味するアイヌ語要素 -kur に由来する民族名が現れる。
    form-function sakhalin -kur
    asserts shiraishitangiku2022
    • shiraishitangiku2022:7.2 asserts checked

Conditions on the affiliative form 7 sentences

What condition triggers the use of the affiliative form of a noun?

Kinship terms: two grammatical classes 2 claims ·8 sentences

How do kinship terms split into two grammatical classes regarding possession?

1. Some kinship terms, such as unu-hu 'his mother', ona-ha 'his father', po-ho 'child/son', and sa-ha 'his elder sister', are encoded as inalienable nouns.
   unu-hu「彼の母」、ona-ha「彼の父」、po-ho「子／息子」、sa-ha「彼の姉」などの一部の親族名称は譲渡不能名詞として扱われる。
   membership ainu exists unu-huona-hapo-hosa-hayup-ihi
   asserts bugaeva2022
   • bugaeva2022:1.5 asserts checked
2. Kinship terms such as totto 'mother', hapo 'father/mother', acapo 'uncle', unarpe 'aunt', huci 'grandmother', and ekasi 'grandfather' are encoded as alienably possessed nouns.
   totto「母」、hapo「父／母」、acapo「叔父」、unarpe「叔母」、huci「祖母」、ekasi「祖父」などの親族名称は譲渡可能所有名詞として記号化される。
   membership ainu exists tottohapoacapounarpehuciekasi
   asserts bugaeva2022
   • bugaeva2022:1.5 asserts checked

Membership, gradience, and dialect variation 5 sentences

How does membership in the inalienable class vary across dialects and lexemes?

Locational and relational nouns 4 claims ·9 sentences

What properties define the subclass of locative nouns expressing spatial and temporal relations?

1. Locative nouns in Ainu have a basic form and long forms.
   アイヌ語の位置名詞には基本形と長形がある。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.7 asserts checked
2. Locative nouns are always treated syntactically as <location>.
   位置名詞は統語的に常に〈場所〉として扱われる。
   distribution ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.7 asserts checked
3. Locational nouns express relative spatial relations like 'above', 'below', 'front', or 'back', and are distinguished grammatically from common nouns by four properties: requiring a preceding reference noun in the basic form, forming long forms differently from affiliative forms, taking objective personal affixes, and always functioning as locations.
   位置名詞は「上」「下」「前」「後」などの相対的位置関係を表し、短形では単独で名詞句になれず基準名詞を要求すること、所属形とは異なる方法で長形を作ること、目的格人称接辞を取れること、文法的に常に〈場所〉として扱われることの4つの特徴で普通名詞と区別される。
   form-function ainu generic
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:238 asserts extracted
4. The basic form (short form) of a locational noun cannot form a noun phrase or sentence element on its own without a preceding noun that specifies its reference point.
   位置名詞の基本形（短形）は、基準点を示す先行名詞がなければ単独で名詞句をつくることも文の要素になることもできない。
   distribution ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:239 asserts checked

Type-1 and Type-2 locative nouns 4 claims ·6 sentences· 4 examples

How are locative nouns divided into two types based on antecedent requirements?

1. Locative nouns are divided into category 1 and category 2 based on whether or not their basic forms require an antecedent noun phrase.
   位置名詞は基本形が先行名詞句を要求するかどうかに応じて、カテゴリー1位置名詞とカテゴリー2位置名詞に区分される。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.7 asserts checked
2. Locational nouns are divided into Type 1 locational nouns, which cannot stand independently at sentence initial in their basic form, and Type 2 locational nouns, which can.
   位置名詞は、基本形で単独で文頭に立てない第一種位置名詞と、基本形で自立語として文頭に立てる第二種位置名詞に区分される。
   terminology ainu all
   proposes nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:241 proposes checked
3. Type 1 locative nouns have an arity of 0 when preceded by an antecedent, and an arity of -1 when occurring without an antecedent in their long form.
   第一種位置名詞は、先行詞があればアリティは 0 であり、先行詞が無ければ長形で -1 となる。
   distribution ainu all katumtom
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:262 asserts checked
4. Type 2 locative nouns have an arity of 0 when an antecedent is present, and an arity of -1 when no antecedent is present.
   第二種位置名詞は、先行詞があればアリティは 0 であり、先行詞が無ければ -1 となる。
   distribution ainu all soyrikwor
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:262 asserts checked

The Type-2 classification controversy 5 sentences

Why do some researchers classify Type-2 locative nouns as common nouns?

Common vs proper nouns 10 claims ·5 sentences

How do proper nouns differ from common nouns grammatically in this language?

1. Proper names are only in extremely rare cases modified by an adnoun or an adnominal clause.
   固有名詞が連体詞や連体修飾節によって修飾されることは極めて稀である。
   frequency hokkaido/southwest/shizunai almost-none
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:75 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
2. In Hokkaido dialects, proper nouns do not take affiliative forms, whereas in Sakhalin dialects people's names possess affiliative forms.
   北海道方言では固有名詞は所属形を持たないが、樺太方言では人名が所属形を持つ。
   variation hokkaidosakhalin generic
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.4 asserts checked
3. In Ainu, there is no grammatical distinction between proper nouns and common nouns.
   アイヌ語は、英語などと異なり、普通名詞と固有名詞との間に文法的な差は無い。
   absence ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:233 asserts checked
4. To avoid sharing names with others, Ainu personal names tended to be long, and most recorded Ainu names consist of two or more words, such as subject + verb or verb + noun.
   似た名前になることを避けるためにアイヌ語の人名は必然的に長くなる傾向があり、記録されているアイヌ語の名前の多くは主語＋動詞、動詞＋名詞のように2語以上で成り立っているものが多い。
   other ainu usually EkasiwakkaKinarapuk
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:234 asserts checked
5. In Ainu, nicknames are called pon re, literally 'little name'.
   アイヌ語であだ名は「小さな名」を意味する pon re と呼ばれる。
   terminology ainu generic pon re
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:236 asserts checked
6. Names of beings like Okikurmi or Samayunkur in Hokkaido, and Yayresuupo or Paarionnay in Sakhalin, are considered proper nouns because each denotes a unique individual.
   北海道の Okikurmi や Samayunkur、樺太の Yayresuupo や Paarionnay などの人文神の名は、唯一の個体を指すため固有名詞の範疇に入れられる。
   analysis hokkaidosakhalin generic OkikurmiSamayunkurYayresuupoPaarionnay
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:237 asserts checked
7. In western Hokkaido heroic epics, the protagonist Poyyaunpe is an epithet meaning 'young land person' that corresponds to a nickname (pon re) and can be treated as a proper noun.
   北海道西部の英雄叙事詩の主人公 Poyyaunpe は「若い陸のやつ」という意味のあだ名（pon re）にあたるものであり、固有名詞として扱ってよい。
   analysis hokkaido/southwest generic Poyyaunpepon re
   proposes nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:237 proposes checked
8. Expressions with the structure 'place name + un + kur/mat' such as Iyoci un kur or Kanesanta un mat function within narratives as proper names denoting specific individuals rather than regional groups.
   Iyoci un kur や Kanesanta un mat のような「地名 + un + kur/mat」という語構成の呼称は、物語中では集団ではなく特定の個人を指すため、叙事詩中という限定で固有名詞と見なすことができる。
   analysis hokkaido generic Iyoci un kurKanesanta un matunkurmat
   proposes nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:237 proposes checked
9. Proper names can take no prefixes or suffixes.
   固有名詞は接頭辞も接尾辞も取ることができない。
   absence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai none
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:75 asserts checked
10. Proper names behave syntactically like general nouns, but unlike general nouns they never take plural suffixes.
    固有名詞は統語的には一般名詞と全く同様に振る舞うが、一般名詞と異なり複数接尾辞をとることは決してない。
    absence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai none
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986 asserts checked

Pronouns and formal nouns in the subclass system 2 claims ·6 sentences

How do personal pronouns differ from common nouns in their syntactic behavior?

1. Pronouns and formal nouns do not show inflectional changes in form.
   代名詞と形式名詞にはこのような語形変化が見られない。
   absence ainu none
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.3 asserts checked
2. Pronouns other than personal pronouns, formal nouns, and bound nominal roots each have an arity of -1.
   人称代名詞以外の代名詞、形式名詞、名詞語根はいずれもアリティが -1 である。
   form-function ainu all neptanpesinephippe
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:262 asserts checked