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Shiraishi & Tangiku 2022

Shiraishi Hidetoshi 白石英才 & Tangiku Itsuji 丹菊逸治 (2022). Language contact in the north. Handbook of the Ainu language (HJLL 12), ch. 7. De Gruyter Mouton, Berlin & Boston.

prior-analysis general text held locally OCR handbook-epub: 5 leaves, 5 with a printed page

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Grouped by topic. The stance is this source's; the other sources that assert, propose, doubt or reject the same claim are listed after it.

Ainu Loanwords and Toponymy in Japanese 1

1. Japanese todo 'sea lion' is thought to be borrowed from Hokkaido Ainu tonto 'hairless thick hide, tanned leather'.
   日本語のトド（海驢）は、北海道アイヌ語のtonto（無毛の厚皮、なめし革）からの借用と考えられている。
   reports

The Ainu People, Their Homeland, and History 1

1. There is no historical record or evidence of an enduring Ainu-speaking community on the Asian continent.
   ユーラシア大陸においてアイヌ語が話されていた、あるいは長期的なアイヌ語コミュニティが存在したことを示す歴史的記録や証拠はない。
   asserts asserts: nakagawa2024 2 statements

Japanese Loanwords and Their Phonological Adaptation 5

1. Sakhalin Ainu konkaani 'metal, gold' is a loanword from Japanese.
   樺太アイヌ語のkonkaani（金属、金）は日本語からの借用語である。
   asserts
2. Ainu hasami 'scissors' in both Sakhalin and Hokkaido dialects is a loanword from Japanese.
   樺太および北海道アイヌ語のhasami（鋏）は明らかに日本語からの借用語である。
   asserts
3. Hokkaido Ainu panco 'axe' is borrowed from Japanese banshō 'carpenter'.
   北海道アイヌ語のpanco（斧）は日本語の「番匠（大工）」からの借用語とされる。
   reports
4. Hokkaido Ainu ontaro and Sakhalin Ainu ontoro 'barrel, cask' are borrowings from Japanese taru.
   北海道アイヌ語ontaroおよび樺太アイヌ語ontoro（樽）は、ともに日本語のtaru（樽）からの借用である。
   asserts
5. In Hokkaido Ainu, the Japanese loan sato is used for 'sugar', whereas in Sakhalin dialects only otoopenpe 'something sweet' is found.
   北海道アイヌ語では「砂糖」を表すのに日本語からの借用語satoが用いられるが、樺太方言ではより広い「甘いもの」を意味するotoopenpeのみが見られる。
   asserts

Synopsis of Lexical-Semantic Fields 1

1. In Hokkaido Ainu, any hairless animal specimen was designated as tontone 'like a tonto'.
   北海道アイヌ語では、毛のない動物標本はすべてtontone（tontoのようである）と呼ばれた。
   reports

Nominal Subclasses and Obligatorily-Possessed (Bound) Nouns 1

1. Nineteenth-century Japanese records preserve names of ethnic groups derived from the Ainu element -kur, meaning 'people'.
   19世紀の日本語記録には、「人」を意味するアイヌ語要素 -kur に由来する民族名が現れる。
   asserts

Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu 21

1. Some settlements on Sakhalin had names in both Ainu and Nivkh, such as Ainu Poro kotan and Nivkh Pile vo, both meaning 'big settlement'.
   サハリンの集落にはアイヌ語の Poro kotan とニヴフ語の Pile vo（いずれも「大集落」の意）のように、2言語で並行する地名をもつものがあった。
   asserts
2. Sakhalin Ainu nuso or nuhsu 'dog sled' is a borrowing from Nivkh nuci.
   樺太アイヌ語のnuso / nuhsu（犬ぞり一式）はニヴフ語nuciからの借用である。
   reports
3. Nivkh [t] corresponds to Sakhalin Ainu [r] in loanwords between the two languages, as in Nivkh maxt to Sakhalin Ainu mahru 'towline spreader' and Nivkh mut to Sakhalin Ainu muhru 'pillow'.
   ニヴフ語の[t]と樺太アイヌ語の[r]の対応は、ニヴフ語maxtと樺太アイヌ語mahru（手綱よけ）、あるいはニヴフ語mutと樺太アイヌ語muhru（枕）に見られるように、両言語間の借用語における一般的な対応である。
   asserts
4. Ainu san 'shelf for offerings' is hypothesized to share an origin with Nivkh cʰaŋ and Uilta saan 'shelf, stand'.
   アイヌ語のsan（神への捧げ物を置く棚）は、ニヴフ語cʰaŋおよびウイルタ語saan（棚、台）と同一起源であると仮定される。
   reports
5. Sakhalin Ainu juuru 'bow used in trap' is shared with Nivkh jur and is absent from Hokkaido Ainu.
   樺太アイヌ語のjuuru（仕掛け弓の弓部）はニヴフ語jurと共通しており、北海道アイヌ語には見られない。
   asserts
6. Sakhalin Ainu tuna(-san-nis) 'harpoon (entire)' is considered a loan from Nivkh tʰla or kʰla, exhibiting the sound correspondence [tʰl] > [tu].
   樺太アイヌ語のtuna(-san-nis)（銛一式）はニヴフ語のtʰla、kʰlaからの借用と考えられ、[tʰl] > [tu]という音変化を示している。
   proposes
7. Sakhalin Ainu hankata 'birch bark plate' was borrowed from Nivkh haŋr̥.
   樺太アイヌ語のhankata（白樺樹皮皿）はニヴフ語haŋr̥からの借用である。
   proposes
8. Nivkh ɲŋar̥ 'ladder' was possibly borrowed from Sakhalin Ainu nikar, where the loss of the unaccented first syllable reflects the second-syllable accent of nikar.
   ニヴフ語ɲŋar̥（梯子）は樺太アイヌ語nikarからの借用の可能性があり、nikarが第2音節にアクセントをもつため無アクセントの語頭母音が脱落したと考えられる。
   proposes
9. In Nivkh, lexical borrowings in common with Ainu are comparatively few, suggesting that language contact along the north-south axis of Sakhalin was local and limited.
   ニヴフ語においてアイヌ語と共通する借用語は比較的少なく、樺太の南北軸に沿った言語接触が局所的かつ限定的であったことを示唆している。
   asserts
10. The Poronaisk dialect of Nivkh exceptionally has a large number of loanwords in common with Ainu compared to other Nivkh dialects, supporting the localized nature of contact between the two languages.
    ニヴフ語の方言の中でポロナイスク方言は例外的にアイヌ語と共通の借用語を多く有しており、両言語間の接触の局所性を裏付けている。
    asserts
11. Thirty-one loanwords are identified as common across Ainu, Nivkh, and Uilta on Sakhalin.
    樺太においてアイヌ語、ニヴフ語、ウイルタ語に共通する借用語として31語が同定される。
    asserts
12. Twenty-nine loanwords are identified as shared exclusively between Nivkh and Ainu on Sakhalin.
    樺太においてニヴフ語とアイヌ語の間で共通する借用語として29語が同定される。
    asserts
13. Ainu loanwords borrowed into other languages of Sakhalin were very rarely transmitted to the Asian continent.
    サハリンの他の言語に借用されたアイヌ語の単語のうち、大陸に伝わったものはきわめて少ない。
    reports
14. Ainu kaya refers to both fish-skin clothing and sails in Sakhalin and Hokkaido, though in Hokkaido dialects the 'fish-skin' sense has bleached and it refers simply to sails.
    アイヌ語のkayaは樺太および北海道において魚皮衣と帆の双方を指すが、北海道方言では「魚皮」の意味が脱落して単に「帆」を指す単語になっている。
    asserts
15. On the island of Sakhalin, three genealogically distinct languages—Ainu, Nivkh, and Uilta—came into contact through social and economic activities.
    サハリン島において、系統を異にする3言語であるアイヌ語、ニヴフ語、ウィルタ語が社会・経済活動を通じて接触した。
    asserts
16. Among the dialects of Ainu, it is the Sakhalin dialect that exhibits the most characteristics in common with Nivkh and Uilta.
    アイヌ語の諸方言のなかで、ニヴフ語やウィルタ語と共通する特徴を最も多く示すのは樺太方言である。
    reports
17. The central region of Sakhalin, where the Ainu contacted the Nivkh and Uilta, may have developed a unique language use situation distinct from other regions of the island.
    アイヌがニヴフやウイルタと接触した樺太中央部は、他の地域とは異なる独特の言語使用状況を発達させた可能性がある。
    proposes
18. Ainu, Nivkh, and Uilta share a number of linguistic characteristics that are not found in the dialects of other regions or in their respective sister languages.
    アイヌ語、ニヴフ語、ウィルタ語の間には、他地域の諸方言や同系統の言語には見られない共通の言語的特徴が複数存在する。
    reports
19. Sakhalin Ainu tonkori 'stringed musical instrument' is thought to be a loan from Manchu.
    樺太アイヌ語のtonkori（弦楽器）は満洲語からの借用語であると考えられている。
    reports
20. On the west coast of Sakhalin, Ainu uses the Uilta loanword wampakka for 'mittens', whereas on the east coast the word matumere is used.
    樺太西海岸のアイヌ語では「ミトン」にウイルタ語からの借用語wampakkaが用いられるのに対し、東海岸ではmatumereという語が用いられる。
    asserts
21. Thirteen loanwords are identified as shared exclusively between Ainu and Uilta on Sakhalin.
    樺太においてアイヌ語とウイルタ語の間で共通する借用語として13語が同定される。
    asserts

Sakhalin and Kuril Ainu: The External Comparison 1

1. The Ainu word sinjitsu 'origin' recorded from a Sirunkur speaker is cognate with and phonologically closer to Taraika dialect sincit [ʃinʤit] 'root' than to Raichiska dialect sinris on the west coast.
   シルンクル話者から記録されたアイヌ語単語 sinjitsu（起源）は、西海岸のライチシカ方言の sinris よりも、東海岸タライカ方言の sincit [ʃinʤit]（根）に近い。
   reports

Statements extracted from this source

Each statement is what the source commits to at one place, in normalised wording, with its type, stance and scope; the page number comes from the page footer of the OCR dump. Status tells how far a statement has been checked.

Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu 21

1. On the island of Sakhalin, three genealogically distinct languages—Ainu, Nivkh, and Uilta—came into contact through social and economic activities.
   サハリン島において、系統を異にする3言語であるアイヌ語、ニヴフ語、ウィルタ語が社会・経済活動を通じて接触した。
   p. 7.1 existence asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin
2. Ainu, Nivkh, and Uilta share a number of linguistic characteristics that are not found in the dialects of other regions or in their respective sister languages.
   アイヌ語、ニヴフ語、ウィルタ語の間には、他地域の諸方言や同系統の言語には見られない共通の言語的特徴が複数存在する。
   p. 7.1 existence reports checked · anchor 100% sakhalin
3. Some settlements on Sakhalin had names in both Ainu and Nivkh, such as Ainu Poro kotan and Nivkh Pile vo, both meaning 'big settlement'.
   サハリンの集落にはアイヌ語の Poro kotan とニヴフ語の Pile vo（いずれも「大集落」の意）のように、2言語で並行する地名をもつものがあった。
   p. 7.2 existence asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin Poro kotan
4. Among the dialects of Ainu, it is the Sakhalin dialect that exhibits the most characteristics in common with Nivkh and Uilta.
   アイヌ語の諸方言のなかで、ニヴフ語やウィルタ語と共通する特徴を最も多く示すのは樺太方言である。
   p. 7.2 variation reports checked · anchor 100% sakhalin
5. Ainu loanwords borrowed into other languages of Sakhalin were very rarely transmitted to the Asian continent.
   サハリンの他の言語に借用されたアイヌ語の単語のうち、大陸に伝わったものはきわめて少ない。
   p. 7.2 distribution reports checked · anchor 100% sakhalin
6. In Nivkh, lexical borrowings in common with Ainu are comparatively few, suggesting that language contact along the north-south axis of Sakhalin was local and limited.
   ニヴフ語においてアイヌ語と共通する借用語は比較的少なく、樺太の南北軸に沿った言語接触が局所的かつ限定的であったことを示唆している。
   p. 7.4 frequency asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin
7. The Poronaisk dialect of Nivkh exceptionally has a large number of loanwords in common with Ainu compared to other Nivkh dialects, supporting the localized nature of contact between the two languages.
   ニヴフ語の方言の中でポロナイスク方言は例外的にアイヌ語と共通の借用語を多く有しており、両言語間の接触の局所性を裏付けている。
   p. 7.4 variation asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin
8. The central region of Sakhalin, where the Ainu contacted the Nivkh and Uilta, may have developed a unique language use situation distinct from other regions of the island.
   アイヌがニヴフやウイルタと接触した樺太中央部は、他の地域とは異なる独特の言語使用状況を発達させた可能性がある。
   p. 7.4 other proposes checked · anchor 100% sakhalin
9. Thirty-one loanwords are identified as common across Ainu, Nivkh, and Uilta on Sakhalin.
   樺太においてアイヌ語、ニヴフ語、ウイルタ語に共通する借用語として31語が同定される。
   p. 7.4 frequency asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin
10. Twenty-nine loanwords are identified as shared exclusively between Nivkh and Ainu on Sakhalin.
    樺太においてニヴフ語とアイヌ語の間で共通する借用語として29語が同定される。
    p. 7.4 frequency asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin
11. Thirteen loanwords are identified as shared exclusively between Ainu and Uilta on Sakhalin.
    樺太においてアイヌ語とウイルタ語の間で共通する借用語として13語が同定される。
    p. 7.4 frequency asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin
12. Sakhalin Ainu nuso or nuhsu 'dog sled' is a borrowing from Nivkh nuci.
    樺太アイヌ語のnuso / nuhsu（犬ぞり一式）はニヴフ語nuciからの借用である。
    p. 7.3 diachrony reports checked · anchor 100% sakhalin nusonuhsu
13. Nivkh [t] corresponds to Sakhalin Ainu [r] in loanwords between the two languages, as in Nivkh maxt to Sakhalin Ainu mahru 'towline spreader' and Nivkh mut to Sakhalin Ainu muhru 'pillow'.
    ニヴフ語の[t]と樺太アイヌ語の[r]の対応は、ニヴフ語maxtと樺太アイヌ語mahru（手綱よけ）、あるいはニヴフ語mutと樺太アイヌ語muhru（枕）に見られるように、両言語間の借用語における一般的な対応である。
    p. 7.3 alternation asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin mahrumohrasimuhru
14. Ainu kaya refers to both fish-skin clothing and sails in Sakhalin and Hokkaido, though in Hokkaido dialects the 'fish-skin' sense has bleached and it refers simply to sails.
    アイヌ語のkayaは樺太および北海道において魚皮衣と帆の双方を指すが、北海道方言では「魚皮」の意味が脱落して単に「帆」を指す単語になっている。
    p. 7.3 form-function asserts anchored · anchor 100% sakhalinhokkaido kaya
15. Ainu san 'shelf for offerings' is hypothesized to share an origin with Nivkh cʰaŋ and Uilta saan 'shelf, stand'.
    アイヌ語のsan（神への捧げ物を置く棚）は、ニヴフ語cʰaŋおよびウイルタ語saan（棚、台）と同一起源であると仮定される。
    p. 7.3 diachrony reports checked · anchor 100% sakhalinhokkaido san
16. Sakhalin Ainu juuru 'bow used in trap' is shared with Nivkh jur and is absent from Hokkaido Ainu.
    樺太アイヌ語のjuuru（仕掛け弓の弓部）はニヴフ語jurと共通しており、北海道アイヌ語には見られない。
    p. 7.3 distribution asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin juuru
17. Sakhalin Ainu tuna(-san-nis) 'harpoon (entire)' is considered a loan from Nivkh tʰla or kʰla, exhibiting the sound correspondence [tʰl] > [tu].
    樺太アイヌ語のtuna(-san-nis)（銛一式）はニヴフ語のtʰla、kʰlaからの借用と考えられ、[tʰl] > [tu]という音変化を示している。
    p. 7.3 diachrony proposes checked · anchor 100% sakhalin tuna
18. Sakhalin Ainu hankata 'birch bark plate' was borrowed from Nivkh haŋr̥.
    樺太アイヌ語のhankata（白樺樹皮皿）はニヴフ語haŋr̥からの借用である。
    p. 7.3 diachrony proposes checked · anchor 100% sakhalin hankata
19. Nivkh ɲŋar̥ 'ladder' was possibly borrowed from Sakhalin Ainu nikar, where the loss of the unaccented first syllable reflects the second-syllable accent of nikar.
    ニヴフ語ɲŋar̥（梯子）は樺太アイヌ語nikarからの借用の可能性があり、nikarが第2音節にアクセントをもつため無アクセントの語頭母音が脱落したと考えられる。
    p. 7.3 diachrony proposes checked · anchor 100% sakhalin nikar
20. Sakhalin Ainu tonkori 'stringed musical instrument' is thought to be a loan from Manchu.
    樺太アイヌ語のtonkori（弦楽器）は満洲語からの借用語であると考えられている。
    p. 7.3 diachrony reports checked · anchor 100% sakhalin tonkori
21. On the west coast of Sakhalin, Ainu uses the Uilta loanword wampakka for 'mittens', whereas on the east coast the word matumere is used.
    樺太西海岸のアイヌ語では「ミトン」にウイルタ語からの借用語wampakkaが用いられるのに対し、東海岸ではmatumereという語が用いられる。
    p. 7.3 variation asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin wampakkamatumere

The Ainu People, Their Homeland, and History 1

1. There is no historical record of the Ainu language ever having been spoken on the Asian continent.
   アイヌ語が大陸で話されていたという記録は存在しない。
   p. 7.2 absence asserts checked · anchor 100% ainu

Nominal Subclasses and Obligatorily-Possessed (Bound) Nouns 1

1. Nineteenth-century Japanese records preserve names of ethnic groups derived from the Ainu element -kur, meaning 'people'.
   19世紀の日本語記録には、「人」を意味するアイヌ語要素 -kur に由来する民族名が現れる。
   p. 7.2 form-function asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin -kur

Sakhalin and Kuril Ainu: The External Comparison 1

1. The Ainu word sinjitsu 'origin' recorded from a Sirunkur speaker is cognate with and phonologically closer to Taraika dialect sincit [ʃinʤit] 'root' than to Raichiska dialect sinris on the west coast.
   シルンクル話者から記録されたアイヌ語単語 sinjitsu（起源）は、西海岸のライチシカ方言の sinris よりも、東海岸タライカ方言の sincit [ʃinʤit]（根）に近い。
   p. 7.2 variation reports checked · anchor 100% sakhalin sinjitsusincitsinris

Japanese Loanwords and Their Phonological Adaptation 5

1. In Hokkaido Ainu, the Japanese loan sato is used for 'sugar', whereas in Sakhalin dialects only otoopenpe 'something sweet' is found.
   北海道アイヌ語では「砂糖」を表すのに日本語からの借用語satoが用いられるが、樺太方言ではより広い「甘いもの」を意味するotoopenpeのみが見られる。
   p. 7.3 variation asserts anchored · anchor 100% hokkaidosakhalin satootoopenpe
2. Sakhalin Ainu konkaani 'metal, gold' is a loanword from Japanese.
   樺太アイヌ語のkonkaani（金属、金）は日本語からの借用語である。
   p. 7.3 diachrony asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalin konkaani
3. Ainu hasami 'scissors' in both Sakhalin and Hokkaido dialects is a loanword from Japanese.
   樺太および北海道アイヌ語のhasami（鋏）は明らかに日本語からの借用語である。
   p. 7.3 diachrony asserts checked · anchor 100% sakhalinhokkaido hasami
4. Hokkaido Ainu panco 'axe' is borrowed from Japanese banshō 'carpenter'.
   北海道アイヌ語のpanco（斧）は日本語の「番匠（大工）」からの借用語とされる。
   p. 7.3 diachrony reports checked · anchor 100% hokkaido panco
5. Hokkaido Ainu ontaro and Sakhalin Ainu ontoro 'barrel, cask' are borrowings from Japanese taru.
   北海道アイヌ語ontaroおよび樺太アイヌ語ontoro（樽）は、ともに日本語のtaru（樽）からの借用である。
   p. 7.3 diachrony asserts checked · anchor 100% hokkaidosakhalin ontaroontoro

Ainu Loanwords and Toponymy in Japanese 1

1. Japanese todo 'sea lion' is thought to be borrowed from Hokkaido Ainu tonto 'hairless thick hide, tanned leather'.
   日本語のトド（海驢）は、北海道アイヌ語のtonto（無毛の厚皮、なめし革）からの借用と考えられている。
   p. 7.3 diachrony reports checked · anchor 100% hokkaido tonto

Synopsis of Lexical-Semantic Fields 1

1. In Hokkaido Ainu, any hairless animal specimen was designated as tontone 'like a tonto'.
   北海道アイヌ語では、毛のない動物標本はすべてtontone（tontoのようである）と呼ばれた。
   p. 7.3 form-function reports checked · anchor 98% hokkaido tontone

Chapters citing this source

Sentences of the first edition citing this source

1. This trade also fostered sustained contact between the Sakhalin Ainu and their Nivkh and Uilta neighbours, the linguistic traces of which are reviewed in the Handbook's chapter on language contact . no page The Ainu People, Their Homeland, and History
2. document items including kaya (from Nivkh, 'fish-skin garment, sail'), san (from Nivkh cʰaŋ, 'offering shelf'), and the shared term tunakay 'reindeer' (→ Japanese トナカイ tonakai), reconstructed from Pre-Proto-Ghilyak *tola-ŋa.y. §3 The Genetic Position of Ainu: Isolate Status and Macro-Comparison Controversies
3. This contact episode introduced the items documented by and helped shape the morphological distinctiveness of the Sakhalin variety. no page The Genetic Position of Ainu: Isolate Status and Macro-Comparison Controversies
4. The multilingualism was "extremely limited and localised", concentrated among individual interpreters rather than being community-wide . §2.5 Sakhalin and Kuril Ainu: The External Comparison
5. — borrowed on Sakhalin from Nivkh, reaching Hokkaido with the specialised sense 'sail' only ; §3.2 Sakhalin and Kuril Ainu: The External Comparison
6. — morphologically unanalysable in Ainu, possibly connected to the Eurasian sanduk Wanderwort, also appearing as Nivkh sinduχ ; §3.4 Sakhalin and Kuril Ainu: The External Comparison
7. — Nivkh cʰaŋ, Uilta saan ; §3.6 Sakhalin and Kuril Ainu: The External Comparison
8. In the reverse direction, several Ainu lexical items passed into Nivkh and Uilta on Sakhalin ; the directionality in each case is argued from morphological analysability, plausible sound correspondences, and the dialect distribution of the forms across Sakhalin versus the continent. §3.2–3.6 Sakhalin and Kuril Ainu: The External Comparison
9. Whether this configuration constitutes a linguistic area in the strict sense — a Sprachbund defined by structural convergence — Shiraishi and Tangiku explicitly leave for future research . §1 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
10. Most Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu vocabulary stayed on Sakhalin, and loanwords travelling in the Ainu-to-continent direction barely reached the mainland . §1 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
11. Standard directionality diagnostics — geographic spread within each family, morphological analysability, sound-change plausibility, and dialect correspondences — must be applied case by case . §3 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
12. Multilingualism on the island was not a general social condition: before the late nineteenth century it was "extremely limited and localized", mediated by individual interpreters and trading contacts rather than widespread bilingualism . §2.5 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
13. The west-coast Sakhalin group called Sirunkur, described as "originally Ainu but Nivkh-ized", documents a sociolinguistic boundary zone rather than a stable bilingual population . §2.2 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
14. In the reverse direction, Sakhalin Ainu tonto, sinduχ, upun 'winter storehouse', nikar 'ladder', and muks 'swaddling cloth' appear in Nivkh . §3.2–3.6 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
15. Of the Nivkh-into-Ainu items, is the one with a clear Hokkaido reflex: Batchelor's dictionary documents kaya in Sakhalin with the meaning 'fish-skin garment', and Hokkaido retained the word with the narrower meaning 'sail' ; . §3.2 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
16. (nukopoli, aynu-corpora Discord, 2024-12-11); . §2 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
17. The offering shelf has cognates in both Nivkh (cʰaŋ) and Uilta (saan), making the direction of borrowing difficult to establish without further philological evidence ‹contested›. §3 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
18. The Manchu word hasaha 'scissors' entered Nivkh as haza; the Hokkaido Ainu word for the same object, hasami, is a Japanese borrowing from the same Manchu ultimate source — showing that the same trade good reached Ainu and Nivkh through different intermediaries . §3 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
19. (thegodofneet, aynu-corpora Discord, 2024-12-10); . §2 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
20. Shiraishi and Tangiku leave the Sprachbund label for future research ; on current evidence, lexical exchange is real and directional, while the structural case is thin. §1 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
21. The primary source for northern-contact data is Shiraishi and Tangiku's survey , which draws on Piłsudski's early-twentieth-century Sakhalin corpus , post-war word-list records, and secondary comparative Nivkh and Tungusic material. no page Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
22. Third, individual interpreters working between Ainu, Nivkh, and Uilta could have introduced phonologically irregular intermediary forms that complicate the etymological record . §2.5 Northern Contact: Nivkh, Tungusic, and Manchu
23. The standard diagnostics applied in the Ainu contact literature are: §3 Macro-Comparison and Deep-Contact Controversies
24. The items that reached Hokkaido Ainu directly — (< Nivkh, with the 'fish-skin garment' sense retained in Sakhalin but reduced to 'sail' in Hokkaido), (morphologically opaque; possible ultimate Eurasian Wanderwort), (< Nivkh cʰaŋ, Uilta saan) — are documented borrowings, not indicators of genetic relationship . §3 Macro-Comparison and Deep-Contact Controversies
25. Whether the Sakhalin contact situation constituted a true Sprachbund is left open by the most recent survey . §1 Macro-Comparison and Deep-Contact Controversies