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A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Knowledge base · Part XVII — Clause Linkage and Adverbial Subordination

137. Manner and Degree Adverbial Clauses

How does the language express manner, simile, and degree in adverbial clauses?

その言語は副詞節において様態、比喩、程度をどのように表現するか？

Manner clauses, the clause-linking -no adverbializer, and degree/extent clauses (pakno 'to the extent that'), framed against Ainu comparison strategies.

candidate topic from the first edition topic:complex/manner-and-degree-adverbial-clauses read this topic as text

33claims
68statements
9sources
5examples
4sections
38first-edition sentences

Local network

The chapter, its sections, the sources it cites, the chapters it cross-references, the forms it mentions most, and the claims grouped under it with the sources that assert, propose, doubt or reject each.

Related chapters

Forms mentioned

no 7noyne 6kotom 6pakno 5pekor 3wa 3apekor 2pirkano 2-no 2pokon 2noyne humas 2noyne siran 2koraci 2hine 1somo … no … 1kor 1pirka no arpa 1[pirka] 1poron 1k=eyam no 1poronno 1Pekor 1pokor 1apokon 1nepkor 1nepkon 1Noyne 1kotom(no) 1a=esanniyo 1noyne ramu / yaynu 1siri ne 1humi ne 1ne 1kane 1

Claims

A claim is one proposition; under it stand the statements of each source, with the stance that source takes. Claims are grouped by a model from the extracted statements and carry that status until reviewed.

  1. In Sakhalin elder speech, the conjunctive particle 'ani expresses means, method, circumstance, or reason ('by', 'while', 'because').
    樺太方言の老人層の言葉において、接続助詞 'ani は手段・方法・付帯状況・理由（「〜によって、〜して、〜ながら、〜ので」）を表す。
    form-function sakhalin all 'ani
    asserts murasaki2025
  2. The conjunction kane expresses 'while' (simultaneous action).
    kane は「ながら」を意味する。
    form-function kane
    asserts kindaichi1936
  3. neeno is used in the sense of 'so as to...' or 'like...'.
    neeno は「～するように」の意味を表す。
    form-function sakhalin neeno
    asserts murasaki2025

Sections

·

Scope of this chapter 3 sentences

What adverbial clause types are covered in this chapter?

The no particle: stative and negated-manner clauses 4 claims ·9 sentences· 2 examples

How does the language form stative and negated-manner clauses?

  1. In Saru and Chitose, kane functions across conjunctive particles, auxiliary verbs, and secondary auxiliaries, expressing marked circumstances such as in stock phrases pas kane terke kane 'running and jumping' or ikayop takup se kane an 'bearing only a quiver'.
    沙流方言や千歳方言においては kane は接続助詞、助動詞、副助動詞にまたがる性質を持ち、pas kane terke kane や ikayop takup se kane an のように何か特筆すべき状況を表す場合に用いられ、kor や wa とは異なる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose generic kane
    asserts nakagawa2024
  2. In the Shizunai dialect, the contemporal conjunctionalizer kane indicates that two acts or events occur simultaneously.
    静内方言において、同時接続詞 kane は2つの行為または事象が同時に生じることを表す。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all kane
    asserts refsing1986
  3. After stative verbs, kane indicates the circumstances or state that form the background of the following sentence.
    状態動詞の後頭で kane は後続文の背景となる状況または状態を表す。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all kane
    asserts refsing1986
  4. In affirmative sentences, the conjunction particle no is used in adverbial clauses expressing a stative event or an incidental circumstance.
    肯定文において接続助詞 no は、状態的事象や付帯状況を示す副詞節で用いられる。
    form-function ainu generic no
    asserts takahashi2022
a=onaha somo mokor no kamuyoritak kor an
4.POSS=father NEG sleep CONJ pray CONJ exist
‘My father, without sleeping, was praying to the gods.’
nakagawa2024:340 SAR Nakagawa ex. 614
somo ipe no arpa=an
NEG eat CONJ go=4.S
‘Without eating, she went.’
constructed

Simile and evidential inference: pekor, apekor, noyne, and kotom 17 claims ·15 sentences· 2 examples

How does the language mark simile and evidential inference in clauses?

  1. The form sem-korachi is semantically equivalent to korachi 'like, as'.
    sem-korachi は korachi（〜の如く）と同義である。
    form-function ainu all sem-korachikorachi
    asserts kindaichi1936
  2. The conjunction expressing 'as if' appears as pekor in Saru and Chitose, pokor in Horobetsu, and pokon in Shizunai, Tokachi, Bihoro, Shiranuka, Kushiro, and Ishikari.
    「〜するかのように」を表す接続助詞は、沙流・千歳方言で pekor、幌別方言で pokor、静内、十勝、美幌、白糠、釧路、石狩で pokon となる。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitosehokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/southwest/shizunaihokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/northeast/kitamihokkaido/northeast/kushirohokkaido/central/ishikari all pekorpokorpokon
    asserts nakagawa2024
  3. apekor is mainly used in Saru and Chitose; no examples have been found for apokor, but apokon is recorded in Tokachi and Yakumo.
    apekor は沙流・千歳方言で主に使われる形で、apokor は例が見当たらないが、apokon は十勝と八雲に記録がある。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitosehokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/southwest/yakumo apekorapokonapokor
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. apekor often occurs in the construction apekor an ('just like / as if'), a usage that pekor appears not to have.
    apekor an で「まるで〜したような」という表現をとることが多いが、これは pekor には無い用法のようである。
    distribution hokkaido usually apekor anapekorpekor
    proposes nakagawa2024
  5. apekor, like pekor, compares the following clause to the preceding clause, but the preceding clause often expresses a situation that is utterly impossible.
    apekor は pekor と同じように後文を前文でたとえる場合に使うが、前文がとうていありえないような事態を表している場合が多い。
    form-function hokkaido usually apekorpekor
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. kotom(no) ('as if / apparently / seemingly') expresses a conjecture about something that is actually happening or likely to happen.
    kotom(no)「〜する（した）ように」「〜する（した）らしく」は、実際に起こっていること、起こりそうなことを推測する。
    form-function hokkaido generic kotomkotomno
    asserts nakagawa2024
  7. noyne ('as if / apparently / seemingly') expresses a conjecture about something that is actually happening or likely to happen.
    noyne「〜する(した)ように」「〜する(した)らしく」は、実際に起こっていること、起こりそうなことを推測する。
    form-function hokkaido generic noyne
    asserts nakagawa2024
  8. noyne is geographically narrower than kotom, being restricted almost entirely to Saru, Chitose, Horobetsu, and Shizunai dialects.
    方言差としては noyne はほぼ沙流・千歳・幌別・静内方言に限られていて、kotom より地域的に狭い範囲で用いられる。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitosehokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually noynekotom
    asserts nakagawa2024
  9. noyne is frequently used in constructions such as noyne ramu ('think that...'), noyne yaynu ('think that...'), noyne humas ('have an atmosphere of...'), and noyne siran ('appear to...').
    noyne は、noyne ramu「〜のように思う」、noyne yaynu「〜のように思う」、noyne humas「〜のような雰囲気だ」、noyne siran「〜のような様子だ」というような構文で使われることが多い。
    distribution hokkaido usually noyne ramunoyne yaynunoyne humasnoyne siran
    asserts nakagawa2024
  10. 'kotom(no)' means 'like' or 'as'.
    kotom(no) は「〜ように」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido generic kotomkotomno
    asserts sato2008
  11. 'kotom(no)' is used mainly in poetic/elevated language, and is frequently followed by 'a-esanniyo' ('to think').
    kotom(no) は主に雅語で用いられ、後ろに a-esanniyo「思う」が来ることが多い。
    distribution hokkaido usually kotomkotomnoa-esanniyo
    asserts sato2008
  12. 'néno' means 'like', 'just as', or 'as'.
    néno は「〜のように，〜の通りに，〜のままに」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido generic néno
    asserts sato2008
  13. 'noyne' expresses inference based on external appearance or other evidence, meaning 'seemingly' or 'as if'.
    noyne は外見その他の証拠からの推量を表し、「〜ように」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido generic noyne
    asserts sato2008
  14. 'pékor' expresses contrary-to-fact comparison, meaning 'as if' or 'as though'.
    pékor は事実に反する比況を表し、「〜かのように」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido generic pékor
    asserts sato2008
  15. While combinations like 'a pékor' can be interpreted as the anterior particle 'a' plus 'pékor' ('as if having done'), there are tokens where the accent falls on 'a', suggesting the possibility of recognizing a distinct form 'ápekor'.
    a pékor は「た・かのように」と解釈されるが、アクセントが a に置かれる例があり、ápekor という pékor とは別の形式を認める必要がある可能性もある。
    analysis hokkaido apékorápekor
    proposes sato2008
  16. 'siri iki' means 'it seems that', used with respect to actions.
    siri iki は動作について「〜ようだ」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido generic siri iki
    asserts sato2008
  17. 'sirki' means 'it seems that', and appears to be frequently used in interrogative expressions.
    sirki は「〜ようだ」を意味し、疑問表現で多く用いられるようである。
    form-function hokkaido usually sirki
    asserts sato2008
nep ka e=nukar pekor e=yki
something EMPH 2SG.A=see CONJ 2SG.S=act
‘You are acting as if you can see something.’
sato2008:56 SAR
tane tamanko kor noyne okokokse hawe as
now egg have INFR cluck voice-POSS exist.PL
‘Apparently having just laid an egg, it is clucking kok-kok.’
nakagawa2024:355 CHI Nakagawa ex. 687

Degree and extent: pakno and comparison frames 9 claims ·11 sentences· 1 examples

How does the language express degree and extent in clauses?

  1. In the Shizunai dialect, the comparative particle koraci can follow verbs as a nominalizer, presenting the nominalized predicate as a standard of comparison for the main predicate.
    静内方言において、比較助詞 koraci は動詞に後続して名詞化辞として機能し、名詞化された述語を主述語の比較の基準として提示する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all koraci
    asserts refsing1986
  2. In the Shizunai dialect, when koraci follows stative verbs, it conveys the meaning of befitting the state denoted by that verb.
    静内方言において、koraci が状態動詞に後続する場合、その動詞が表す状態に「ふさわしい」という意味を表すことがある。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all koraci
    asserts refsing1986
  3. pahno expresses extent or temporal limit ('to the extent that', 'until').
    pahno は限度や限時（「～する程」「～するまで」）を表す。
    form-function sakhalin pahno
    asserts murasaki2025
  4. The particle 'kane' means 'to the extent of' or 'to the degree that'.
    kane は「〜ほどに, 〜くらいに」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido generic kane
    asserts sato2008
  5. Conjunctive 'kane' expresses being to the same degree as something, and is often used especially when describing a situation metaphorically and hyperbolically beyond reality.
    接続助詞的な kane は、あるものと同程度であることを表す形式であるが、特に事態を現実以上にオーバーに比喩的に表現する場合によく用いられる。
    form-function hokkaido usually kane
    asserts sato2008
  6. 'koraci' means 'like', 'just as', or 'as'.
    koraci は「〜のように，〜の通りに，〜のままに」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido generic koraci
    asserts sato2008
  7. 'pak' means 'to the extent of' or 'up to about'.
    pak は「〜ほど, 〜くらいまで」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido generic pak
    asserts sato2008
  8. The particle kane expresses an exaggerated degree.
    kane は「オーバーな程度」を表す。
    form-function generic kane
    asserts sato2008
  9. kane functions as a particle meaning 'to the extent of, such as, in the manner of'.
    kane は「ほど，など，ように」を意味する副助詞として機能する。
    form-function kane
    asserts sato2008
a=ona pakno nispa isam nispa ne
4.POSS=father equal rich.man not.exist rich.man COP
‘My father was a rich man with no equal.’
bugaeva2015:49 HK