Knowledge base · Part XVII — Clause Linkage and Adverbial Subordination · this topic as a network
137. Manner and Degree Adverbial Clauses
How does the language express manner, simile, and degree in adverbial clauses?
In Sakhalin elder speech, the conjunctive particle 'ani expresses means, method, circumstance, or reason ('by', 'while', 'because'). (Murasaki 2025: 31, 96) The conjunction kane expresses 'while' (simultaneous action). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) neeno is used in the sense of 'so as to...' or 'like...'. (Murasaki 2025: 70)
The no particle: stative and negated-manner clauses
How does the language form stative and negated-manner clauses?
In Saru and Chitose, kane functions across conjunctive particles, auxiliary verbs, and secondary auxiliaries, expressing marked circumstances such as in stock phrases pas kane terke kane 'running and jumping' or ikayop takup se kane an 'bearing only a quiver'. (Nakagawa 2024: 342) In the Shizunai dialect, the contemporal conjunctionalizer kane indicates that two acts or events occur simultaneously. (Refsing 1986: 251) After stative verbs, kane indicates the circumstances or state that form the background of the following sentence. (Refsing 1986: 251) In affirmative sentences, the conjunction particle no is used in adverbial clauses expressing a stative event or an incidental circumstance. (Takahashi 2022: 18.5)
Simile and evidential inference: pekor, apekor, noyne, and kotom
How does the language mark simile and evidential inference in clauses?
The form sem-korachi is semantically equivalent to korachi 'like, as'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The conjunction expressing 'as if' appears as pekor in Saru and Chitose, pokor in Horobetsu, and pokon in Shizunai, Tokachi, Bihoro, Shiranuka, Kushiro, and Ishikari. (Nakagawa 2024: 354) apekor is mainly used in Saru and Chitose; no examples have been found for apokor, but apokon is recorded in Tokachi and Yakumo. (Nakagawa 2024: 354) apekor often occurs in the construction apekor an ('just like / as if'), a usage that pekor appears not to have. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 354) apekor, like pekor, compares the following clause to the preceding clause, but the preceding clause often expresses a situation that is utterly impossible. (Nakagawa 2024: 354) kotom(no) ('as if / apparently / seemingly') expresses a conjecture about something that is actually happening or likely to happen. (Nakagawa 2024: 354) noyne ('as if / apparently / seemingly') expresses a conjecture about something that is actually happening or likely to happen. (Nakagawa 2024: 355) noyne is geographically narrower than kotom, being restricted almost entirely to Saru, Chitose, Horobetsu, and Shizunai dialects. (Nakagawa 2024: 355) noyne is frequently used in constructions such as noyne ramu ('think that...'), noyne yaynu ('think that...'), noyne humas ('have an atmosphere of...'), and noyne siran ('appear to...'). (Nakagawa 2024: 355) 'kotom(no)' means 'like' or 'as'. (Satō 2008: 55) 'kotom(no)' is used mainly in poetic/elevated language, and is frequently followed by 'a-esanniyo' ('to think'). (Satō 2008: 55) 'néno' means 'like', 'just as', or 'as'. (Satō 2008: 55) 'noyne' expresses inference based on external appearance or other evidence, meaning 'seemingly' or 'as if'. (Satō 2008: 55) 'pékor' expresses contrary-to-fact comparison, meaning 'as if' or 'as though'. (Satō 2008: 56) While combinations like 'a pékor' can be interpreted as the anterior particle 'a' plus 'pékor' ('as if having done'), there are tokens where the accent falls on 'a', suggesting the possibility of recognizing a distinct form 'ápekor'. (proposed in Satō 2008: 57) 'siri iki' means 'it seems that', used with respect to actions. (Satō 2008: 57) 'sirki' means 'it seems that', and appears to be frequently used in interrogative expressions. (Satō 2008: 57)
Degree and extent: pakno and comparison frames
How does the language express degree and extent in clauses?
In the Shizunai dialect, the comparative particle koraci can follow verbs as a nominalizer, presenting the nominalized predicate as a standard of comparison for the main predicate. (Refsing 1986: 262, 263) In the Shizunai dialect, when koraci follows stative verbs, it conveys the meaning of befitting the state denoted by that verb. (Refsing 1986: 265) pahno expresses extent or temporal limit ('to the extent that', 'until'). (Murasaki 2025: 70) The particle 'kane' means 'to the extent of' or 'to the degree that'. (Satō 2008: 54) Conjunctive 'kane' expresses being to the same degree as something, and is often used especially when describing a situation metaphorically and hyperbolically beyond reality. (Satō 2008: 55) 'koraci' means 'like', 'just as', or 'as'. (Satō 2008: 55) 'pak' means 'to the extent of' or 'up to about'. (Satō 2008: 56) The particle kane expresses an exaggerated degree. (Satō 2008: 347) kane functions as a particle meaning 'to the extent of, such as, in the manner of'. (Satō 2008: 369)