Knowledge base · Part XVII — Clause Linkage and Adverbial Subordination · this topic as a network

136. Causal and Purpose Clauses (kusu)

How does the language express causal and purposive relations between clauses?

Overview: kusu in the causal–purposive group

What is the primary semantic range of the conjunctive particle that marks both cause and purpose?

In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particle kusu expresses purpose, reason, or cause. (Murasaki 2025: 31, 96) The light noun kus-u expresses intentional modality. (Bugaeva 2016) The conjunction kusu expresses cause or reason ('because', 'since'), purpose ('in order to', 'intending to'), functions as an exclamatory particle, and expresses indirect command. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The final vowel of kusu is often devoiced, frequently resulting in the pronunciation kus. (Nakagawa 2024: 352) In the author's analysis, kusu is defined as a conjunctionalizer. (Refsing 1986: 24) kusu functions as a conjunctionalizer. (Refsing 1986: 34) Consequential conjunctionalizers indicate that the conjunctionalized clause expresses the cause or the purpose of the following clause. (Refsing 1986: 251) In rapid speech, the final vowel [u] of kusu is often dropped. (Refsing 1986: 251) 'kusu' (and its variant 'kus') means 'in order to', 'because', or 'since'. (Satō 2008: 54) kus is a phonologically reduced variant of the conjunctive particle kusu 'because, in order to'. (Satō 2008: 100) kus is a reduced variant of kusu 'because'. (Satō 2008: 370) kusu is a subordinating conjunction meaning 'because' or 'in order to'. (Shibatani 1990: 22) Speaker intention is expressed by the particle kusu, which also serves as a subordinating conjunctive meaning 'because' and 'in order to'. (Shibatani 1990)

Purpose: 'in order to'

How does the language mark purpose, especially with motion verbs?

Refsing defines kusu as a conjunctionalizer that, in one of its functions, marks the conjunctionalized clause as the purpose of the subsequent clause. (Refsing 1986) Kunine conjoins two sentences such that the event of the second sentence is performed with the purpose of bringing about the first (conjunctionalized) sentence. (Refsing 1986: 253) Kunine resembles kusu in having the meaning 'in order to / in order that'. (Refsing 1986: 253) Etymologically, kunine is probably connected with the quotationalizer kuni and the copula ne. (proposed in Refsing 1986: 253)

Reason and cause: 'because'

How does the language mark reason or cause in a clause?

The conjunctionalizer na marks a clause that contains the justification or reason for a subsequent command or request. (Refsing 1986: 253) The expression p ne kusu expresses reason, but typically conveys emotional nuances such as unexpectedness or admiration. (Satō 2008: 159) The expression pe ne kusu expresses reason or cause, but tends to convey an emotive nuance. (Satō 2008: 333) sēkor an pe kusu expresses the meaning 'for the reason that, because it is said that'. (Satō 2008: 348) kusu functions as a causal conjunction meaning 'because, since'. (Satō 2008: 370)

The evidential–kusu scope order

What is the order when an evidential marker and a causal particle co-occur?

wa kusu and hi kusu: reason-only compounds

How do compound particles restrict the meaning to reason only?

wa kusu ('because / since') is used to express reason or cause, and cannot be used to express purpose. (Nakagawa 2024: 353) hi kusu ('because / since') is used to express reason or cause, and cannot be used to express purpose. (Nakagawa 2024: 353) When wa kusu occurs, it is frequently translated as 'because ...ed' or 'having ...ed, therefore'. (Satō 2008: 100) The combination wa kusu (composed of wa 'and/te' and kusu 'for that purpose') expresses the meaning 'because / since'. (Satō 2008: 340)

The free conjunctive use: 'therefore, that is why'

Can a conjunctive particle be used sentence-initially as a connective adverb?

kusu has an independent (free) usage where it can stand sentence-initially meaning 'for that reason / therefore'. (Nakagawa 2024: 353) The element kusu forms part of compounds such as nepkus 'why', wakusu 'so that', and nekusu 'therefore'. (Refsing 1986: 253) kusu is used as a conjunctive particle meaning 'because/since', but can also occur alone as an adverb meaning 'therefore' or 'for that reason'. (Satō 2008: 100)

kusu ne: the intentive and prospective construction

How does the language express intention or prospective aspect using a particle and copula?

The causal–purpose polysemy: how the readings are resolved

What factors resolve the ambiguity between causal and purposive readings?

kusu ('in order to / because / since') is used when the preceding clause indicates the purpose, cause, or reason for the following clause. (Nakagawa 2024: 352) Kusu either expresses a causal relation between two clauses or marks the preceding action, state, or event as the purpose of the action in the main clause. (Refsing 1986: 251)

Dialect range and Sakhalin contrast

How does the distribution of causal and purposive particles vary across dialects?

In Sakhalin Ainu, kusu expresses continuation of an action and resulting state, corresponding to Hokkaido kor and wa rather than cause or purpose. (Nakagawa 2024: 344) Examples of hi kusu are very few outside the Saru and Chitose dialects, indicating regional variation. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 353) The Shizunai dialect has three consequential conjunctionalizers: kusu, kunine, and na. (Refsing 1986: 251) kusu with meanings similar to Shizunai is found both in the Saru dialect and in the Sakhalin Raychishka dialect. (reported in Refsing 1986: 253) In the author's Shizunai material, kunine appears infrequently, whereas kusu is the generally used form. (Refsing 1986: 253) Kunine with the same meaning is also found in the Saru and Raychishka dialects. (reported in Refsing 1986: 253)