Knowledge base · Part XVII — Clause Linkage and Adverbial Subordination · this topic as a network
135. Conditional, Temporal, and Concessive Clauses
How does the language mark conditional, temporal, and concessive relationships between clauses?
The conditional marker 'anah is used when the speaker is uncertain whether the condition will occur (e.g. not knowing whether it will rain). (Murasaki 2025: 61) In the elderly register, the conjunctive particle ko'ekaari indicates that an event takes place in the middle of another ongoing action. (Murasaki 2025: 97) The conjunction expressing continuing result ('as a result of doing X for a fixed time, Y resulted') is ayne in many dialects, but ahinne in the Tokachi dialect. (Nakagawa & Fukazawa 2022: 8.4) The conjunctionalizer ayne has been explained etymologically as a combination of the durative auxiliary a and the conjunctionalizer hine. (reported in Refsing 1986: 248) The Saru dialect has ayne with the same meaning and function as in the Shizunai dialect. (reported in Refsing 1986: 248) Konno indicates that in a specific state of circumstances one event is followed by another. (Refsing 1986: 248) In general statements of habitual or universal validity, konno indicates that one event is necessarily followed by another as an inevitable sequence or consequence. (Refsing 1986: 248) Konno can lend a nuance of conditionality that causes its meaning to overlap with that of conditional conjunctionalizers. (Refsing 1986: 248) The nuance of habituality associated with konno is especially strong in the idioms kesto an konno 'every day' and kespa an konno 'every year'. (Refsing 1986: 248) In the Sakhalin Raychishka dialect, the conjunctionalizer koh or koh ki expresses an inevitable sequence between two statements. (reported in Refsing 1986: 251) The conjunctive particle no is used with negative clauses to mean 'without doing / not doing and'. (Satō 2008: 47) akusu expresses a factual condition where the apodosis occurs contingently after the protasis has actually taken place. (Satō 2008: 47) awa is used with a meaning similar to akusu, but tends to appear more in oral literature. (Satō 2008: 47) The expression a p consists of the auxiliary verb a 'past/perfective' and the nominalizer p 'thing', means 'even though / despite having done', and is often followed by expressions of regret or surprise. (Satō 2008: 52) a p is a conjunction-like expression meaning adversative 'although' / 'even though'. (Satō 2008: 333)
The conditional, concessive, and adversative subsystem
How are hypothetical, temporal, and concessive relationships marked between finite clauses?
In the Sakhalin elderly register, the conjunctive particles koh and kohki express that the subsequent action follows immediately and regularly upon the first action. (Murasaki 2025: 97, 32, 70) In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particle 'etokota expresses that an action takes place prior to another action ('before'). (Murasaki 2025: 97, 32, 43) In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particle 'okaaketa expresses that subsequent action continues after an action has finished ('after'). (Murasaki 2025: 97, 32, 51) In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particle 'omantene expresses the outcome of repeated or prolonged action. (Murasaki 2025: 32, 52) In Sakhalin Ainu, the conditional particle 'anah indicates that if a condition is satisfied another action will occur, used for future hypothetical events. (Murasaki 2025: 97, 33) A variety of subordinating conjunctions exist in Ainu, including kusu 'because', kuni(ne) 'in order to', kor 'when/while/if', yak 'if', yak-un 'if', yak-ka 'even if', hike ka 'in spite of', and pe/p (ora) 'although'. (Bugaeva 2012) In Hokkaido Ainu, the erstwhile head noun rapok 'interval' has been diachronically reanalyzed as a subordinating conjunction meaning 'when'. (Bugaeva 2016) The erstwhile head noun hi 'thing/place/time' and a few other nouns such as rapok 'interval' were reanalyzed as subordinating conjunctions. (Bugaeva 2016) When a subordinate clause is closed with the nominalizer -i, it takes on an adversative meaning corresponding to 'even though' or 'in spite of'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The conjunction ita means 'when' or 'at the time of'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The conjunction ko means 'when' or 'if' ('...sureba', '...suru to'). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The conjunction awa means 'upon doing...', 'when... did', or 'and then'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) shiri can also be used as a conjunctive element meaning 'even though ...' or 'despite doing ...'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) 'ohta expresses temporal circumstance ('when doing'). (Murasaki 2025: 70) When p ~ pe is used as a conjunctive particle, especially after a sentence-final phrase like ruwe ne, it links clauses that are temporally or event-wise connected without strong causal relation. (Nakagawa 2024: 346) The conjunctive particles ayne, ahinne, and ainne express that an action was carried out for a certain period of time and what resulted from it ('after doing... for a while', 'in the end'). (Nakagawa 2024: 346) When used with a negative, ayne can express 'before doing...'. (Nakagawa 2024: 347) In the Tokachi dialect, the form ahinne or ainne is used in the meaning of ayne ('after doing for a while'). (Nakagawa 2024: 347) The Shizunai dialect has three conditional conjunctionalizers: cik, yakun, and yak. (Refsing 1986) Conditional expressions in Ainu are usually formed by conjunctional particles. (Satō 2009) The conjunctional particles ciki, kor, yak, yakun, and yakne express hypothetical conditions, whereas akusu and awa express factual conditions. (Satō 2009) akusu (akus) expresses factual conditions. (Satō 2009) The nominalizer-plus-copula construction ruwe ne can precede the factual conditional marker akusu. (Satō 2009) In Ainu, no reliable examples have been found so far where a yes-no question appears following a conditional expression. (Satō 2009) There appears to be no dedicated conditional form in Ainu corresponding to Japanese nara, which belongs to the level of judgment. (proposed in Satō 2009) In combination with the topical conjunctive particle neanpe, nominalization with -hV forms an expression that is used like a conjunction expressing a sequence of events ('when ~ happened, the next event happened'). (Tangiku 2022: 9.8) Unlike the conjunction anah, the -hV neanpe construction does not have a condition-contrary-to-fact use. (Tangiku 2022: 9.8)
yakun — the hypothetical conditional
What particle marks a hypothetical conditional with no mood restriction?
The conditional conjunction yakun has a wide range of usage corresponding to multiple Japanese conditionals such as -reba, -tara, and -nara. (Satō 2009) The conjunction yak expresses hypothetical condition ('if') or quotative meaning ('that', equivalent to sekor and ari). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The conjunctions yakun and yakne are equivalent in function to yak. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The conditional conjunction yakun 'if' can also be used independently at the beginning of a sentence. (Nakagawa 2024: 294) The conjunctive particle yakun ('if, when') presents a prerequisite situation and shows what occurs under that condition. (Nakagawa 2024: 347) The conjunctionalizer yakun indicates that the speaker does not know whether the statement in the subordinate clause will be realized, but if realized, the following sentence becomes relevant. (Refsing 1986: 257) Following a clause marked by yakun, the main predicate often expresses an order, a wish, or a suggestion. (Refsing 1986: 257) The conjunctionalizer yakun appears in subjunctive expressions in combination with pirka 'be fine'. (Refsing 1986: 257) In ordinary conditional constructions where the apodosis necessarily follows from the protasis, yakun carries a nuance of 'when' with temporal implications. (Refsing 1986: 257) Yakun is etymologically connected with yak combined with the attributive/allative postposition un. (Refsing 1986: 257) yakun is often used when the apodosis is an expression of volition or conjecture. (Satō 2008: 52) The conditional conjunction yakun is usually followed by an expression of volition or conjecture in the apodosis. (Satō 2008: 338) The conditional marker yakun is used for hypothesizing individual situations. (Satō 2009) In clauses following yakun, not only epistemic judgement ('真偽判断') but also moods such as imperative, volitional, and interrogative can appear sentence-finally. (Satō 2009) yak and yakun are subordinating conjunctions meaning 'if/even if'. (Shibatani 1990: 22)
yak and yakne — habitual and evaluative conditionals
What particle marks a habitual or evaluative conditional?
The conjunctive particles yak and yakne show that when an event occurs, something accompanied by an evaluation such as 'good' or 'bad' occurs as a result. (Nakagawa 2024: 349) Unlike yak, saying 'yakne pirka' is extremely rare, and yakne is usually followed by a longer sentence. (Nakagawa 2024: 349) The conjunctionalizer yak indicates that if a certain condition is present or absent in the subordinate clause, the content of the following sentence will necessarily come about. (Refsing 1986: 257) Clauses conjoined with yak often imply that the speaker fears the realization of the condition and mentions the consequences as a kind of warning. (Refsing 1986: 257) In its warning function, yak is frequently reinforced by the restrictive postposition anak. (Refsing 1986: 257) In rapid speech, yak occasionally drops its initial [y]. (Refsing 1986: 257) Whereas yakun often indicates hypothetical conditions, yak generally refers to matters that habitually stand in a conditional relationship. (Refsing 1986: 257) The conjunctionalizer yak occasionally begins a sentence and thus functions as a free form. (Refsing 1986: 258) The Saru dialect also possesses the conjunctionalizer yak, which is very close in meaning and function to that of Shizunai. (reported in Refsing 1986: 258) yakne can be used like an independent conjunction receiving the content of a preceding imperative sentence ('Do X. If so...'). (Satō 2008: 47) yak can be followed by emphatic adverbial particles such as anak, anakne, easir, or tasi, and is often used in expressions evaluating goodness or badness. (Satō 2008: 47) yak often takes a word meaning good or bad after it, forming an expression of obligation ('it is good to...') or prohibition ('do not...') as a whole. (Satō 2008: 51) Although examples are not numerous, yak can be used in expressions meaning benefactive action ('do something for someone'). (Satō 2008: 51) yakne is used with a meaning similar to yak, but appears to be used mainly in oral literature. (Satō 2008: 51) yakne frequently expresses 'if' in the collocation wa ne yakne. (Satō 2008: 51) The expression wa ne yakne is mainly used in oral literature to mean 'if (it is the case that)'. (Satō 2008: 340) The conjunctional particles yakne and awa appear mainly in texts of oral literature. (Satō 2009) The conjunction yak is frequently used with pirka 'good' or wen 'bad' following it, forming idiomatic expressions meaning 'one should do' or 'one must not do'. (Satō 2009) Clauses marked with yak are typically subject to a mood-like constraint in that they usually convey an appeal or directive toward the addressee. (Satō 2009)
ciki/cik — the mood-restricted conditional
What particle marks a conditional restricted to imperative or interrogative matrix clauses?
In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particle ciki expresses a condition where an action is expected or certain to happen, upon which another action will occur. (Murasaki 2025: 33, 98) The conjunction chiki expresses hypothetical condition ('if', = yak), cause/reason ('because', = kusu), or past cause ('since/because', = wa-kusu). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The Sakhalin Ainu particle ciki means 'when / if (... tara)' or 'because (... suru kara)'. (Murasaki 2025: 42) The conditional marker ciki is used when the speaker expects the condition to be likely (e.g. thinking it is likely to rain). (Murasaki 2025: 61) The conjunctive particle form is cik in the Shizunai, Samani, and Tokachi dialects, while it is basically ciki in other regions. (Nakagawa 2024: 350) One usage of ciki / cik is to present what is about to happen followed by an imperative or request ('because/when X, do Y'). (Nakagawa 2024: 350) A second usage of ciki / cik is to present what is about to happen followed by an associated question ('if X, then [question]?'). (Nakagawa 2024: 350) In the Horobetsu and Chitose dialects, ciki has a usage expressing almost the same meaning as akusu ('when/upon doing...'). (Nakagawa 2024: 350) In the Tokachi dialect, cik pirka is used in the sense of 'it would be good if...' or 'do...', similar to yak pirka. (Nakagawa 2024: 351) In the Tokachi dialect, the form cik anak(ne), combining cik with the adverbial particle anak(ne), is frequently used, a pattern not seen in other regions. (Nakagawa 2024: 351) In the literary style of the Shizunai and Saru dialects, the conjunctionalizer ciki is found in the standard formula introducing long speeches by gods before an imperative. (Refsing 1986) The conditional conjunctionalizer cik is rather infrequently used. (Refsing 1986) In stories, cik mostly appears in fixed expressions where its meaning overlaps with that of consequential conjunctionalizers. (Refsing 1986) In colloquial speech, cik is used in connection with imperative statements, where the subordinate clause expresses the assumption upon which the command or suggestion in the final predicate is based. (Refsing 1986) The conjunctionalizer cik may also be used in ordinary conditional expressions when the condition is hypothetical. (Refsing 1986) In the Saru dialect, the conjunctionalizer ciki corresponds in meaning and function to yakun in the Shizunai dialect. (reported in Refsing 1986: 257) cik expresses a hypothetical condition and appears to be followed by interrogative or imperative expressions like ciki, but examples are very few. (Satō 2008: 48) ciki expresses a hypothetical condition ('if / when') and is often used when the apodosis is an imperative or interrogative expression. (Satō 2008: 48) The conjunction cik has very few attestations. (Satō 2009) The conjunction ciki expresses a hypothesis of an individual event, and is subject to a mood constraint such that the main clause in principle takes an interrogative or imperative mood. (Satō 2009)
Conditional kor — temporal and habitual
How does the language express a temporal or habitual conditional with the particle for simultaneity?
The conditional conjunctive particle kor can express a nomological condition where the apodosis invariably occurs if the protasis occurs. (Satō 2008: 49, 335) In dialects such as Saru and Chitose, there is a homophonous conjunctive particle kor meaning 'when / if', which must be distinguished from simultaneous kor. (Nakagawa 2024: 340) The conjunctive particle kor ('when, whenever') shows that whenever a certain event occurs, the subsequent event always occurs, which contrasts with yakun which concerns a single instance. (Nakagawa 2024: 347) In the Shizunai dialect, konno and koonno function as conjunctive particles related in form and meaning to kor, marking habitually realized or realized past situations in the protasis under which the apodosis is realized. (reported in Nakagawa 2024: 348) In the Horobetsu dialect, the conjunctive particle ko has three uses: simple temporal/sequential succession (corresponding to akusu in Saru), time/temporal progression (corresponding to kor in Saru), and contrast. (reported in Nakagawa 2024: 348) The conjunctive particle ko found in Horobetsu is also found in the Shiranuka and Kushiro dialects. (Nakagawa 2024: 349) The conditional conjunctional particle ko appears in the Abuta, Horobetsu, Samani, Kushiro, and Shiranuka dialects. (Nakagawa & Fukazawa 2022: 8.4) In the Tokachi, Ishikari, Saru, and Chitose dialects, the conditional conjunctional particle ko appears as kor, identical in form with the simultaneous particle kor 'while doing'. (Nakagawa & Fukazawa 2022: 8.4) In the Shizunai dialect, the conditional conjunctional form konno (probably derived from kor-no) is used in place of ko. (Nakagawa & Fukazawa 2022: 8.4) kor is a conjunctive particle expressing a condition ('when/if'). (Satō 2008: 34) kor is also used in evaluations of goodness or badness, but it tends to appear more in interrogative sentences. (Satō 2008: 47) kor is frequently used for hypothetical conditions when the protasis contains an interrogative word. (Satō 2008: 49) kor can be used in factual conditional clauses indicating that the protasis actually occurred, but this is quite rare. (Satō 2008: 49) The conditional conjunction kor often expresses a lawful or regular meaning ('whenever / without fail'). (Satō 2008: 291) Factual uses of the conjunction kor are quite rare. (Satō 2009) The conjunction kor is used to express general causal relationships. (Satō 2009) The conjunction kor is also used to express hypotheses of individual events, but with a constraint on the clause-final mood, usually appearing in wh-interrogative sentences. (Satō 2009) Although kor is used to express general causal relationships ('naming level'), it usually does not co-occur with expressions at the 'phenomenon level' or 'judgement level'. (Satō 2009)
The realis and mood-constraint split: a comparative table
How do conditionals split between mood-constrained and mood-free uses?
In the Saru dialect, subjunctive expressions are formed with either ciki or kor in combination with pirka. (reported in Refsing 1986: 257) Among Ainu conditional markers, there are forms (such as ciki and kor) that specify an imperative or interrogative mood sentence-finally in the main clause. (Satō 2009) In Ainu, some conditional expressions require only interrogative and imperative modal expressions in the main clause, so epistemic mood does not necessarily play a crucial role. (Satō 2009)
yakka — concessive and permissive
What particle marks concessive 'even if' or 'even though'?
In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particles yahka and elder-speech yahkayki form concessive clauses meaning 'even though' or 'even if'. (Murasaki 2025: 33, 60, 97) The conjunction yakka means 'even if' or 'even though' ('...shitemo'). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The conjunctions apkusu and kokusui are equivalent in meaning to yakka. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) yakka, yakkay, and yakkayki ('even if / although') express that regardless of what happens, whether an event yet to occur or already occurred, one does or did something. (Nakagawa 2024: 352) When yakka / yakkay / yakkayki refers to an event yet to happen, it is often followed by a sentence expressing a judgment on it; when it refers to an event that has already occurred, it often has an adversative sense. (Nakagawa 2024: 352) In verse, the concessive conjunction is frequently used in the form yakkayki. (Nakagawa 2024: 352) In Tokachi and Shiranuka, yakka takes the form yakkay. (Nakagawa 2024: 352) In Kushiro, partly due to the abundance of verse materials, the concessive conjunction appears almost entirely as yakkayki, though yakkayki is also used in prose. (Nakagawa 2024: 352) Especially after a consonant, the y of yakka/yakkay/yakkayki may drop, resulting in akkay or akkayki. (Nakagawa 2024: 352) The Shizunai dialect has only one concessive conjunctionalizer, namely yakka. (Refsing 1986) The concessive conjunctionalizer yakka is probably a combination of the conditional conjunctionalizer yak and the restrictive postposition ka. (proposed in Refsing 1986) The construction '(sentence) yakka pirka' means 'it is all right that you...' or 'you may...'. (Refsing 1986) The Saru and Raychishka dialects also have yakka (Raychishka: yahka) with similar concessive meanings and functions. (reported in Refsing 1986) The conjunctive particle 'yakka' means 'even if' or 'even though', containing the nuance of a hypothetical condition. (Satō 2008: 53)
korka and hikeka — adversative
What particle marks an adversative 'but' or 'however'?
In the Shizunai dialect, the coordinator hike followed by the restrictive particle ka functions as an adversative or concessive marker. (Refsing 1986: 258) When a subordinate clause is closed with -p or -pe, it expresses an adversative meaning equivalent to 'though' or 'should have...'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The conjunction korka means 'although' or 'but' ('keredomo'). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) When hike is used as a conjunctive particle, it connects preceding and following clauses that are temporally or event-wise connected but lack a strong causal relationship. (Nakagawa 2024: 346) The conjunctions korka and korkay ('although / but') express that something contrary to expectations occurred. (Nakagawa 2024: 351) In dialects such as Samani, Tokachi, Shiranuka, and Kushiro, korka takes the form korkay. (Nakagawa 2024: 351) hikeka, ikeka, and ikekay ('although / but') express that something contrary to expectations occurred. (Nakagawa 2024: 351) hikeka takes the form ikeka in Ishikari, and ikekay in Shiranuka and Kushiro. (Nakagawa 2024: 351) Although some authors describe hikeka / ikeka / ikekay as expressing concession, they are used in virtually the same situations as korka. (Nakagawa 2024: 351) The form hikeka, formed by adding ka to hike, is used exclusively as a conjunctional particle with an adversative meaning like 'even if' or 'although'. (Nakagawa 2024: 516) The Shizunai dialect has only one adversative conjunctionalizer morpheme, namely korka. (Refsing 1986: 258) The adversative conjunctionalizer korka is found in all Hokkaido dialects of Ainu. (reported in Refsing 1986: 258) The conjunctionalizer korka does not occur in the Sakhalin Raychishka dialect. (Refsing 1986: 258) The conjunctionalizer korka indicates that the contents of the second connected clause occur contrary to expectation and in opposition to the conjunctionalized clause. (Refsing 1986: 258) hike / ike (usually accompanied by ka) means 'even though / although', expressing a factual condition. (Satō 2008: 52) Rather than an adversative relation, hike can be used for simple indication of a time point or conditional expressions denoting contingent individual relations. (Satō 2008: 52) The conjunctive particle 'korka' means 'but' or 'although'. (Satō 2008: 53) korka functions as an adversative conjunction meaning 'however, but'. (Satō 2008: 369) korka is a subordinating conjunction meaning 'even though'. (Shibatani 1990: 22)