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A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Knowledge base · Part XVII — Clause Linkage and Adverbial Subordination

131. Clause Linkage in Ainu: Typology and Inventory

How does the language link finite clauses, and what morphemes are used?

この言語では、有限節をどのように接続し、どのような形態素が使われるのか。

Framing chapter mapping Ainu clause combining onto the coordination–cosubordination–subordination continuum and laying out the full inventory of clause-linking morphemes.

candidate topic from the first edition topic:complex/clause-linkage-overview read this topic as text

81claims
133statements
15sources
10examples
8sections
72first-edition sentences

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Forms mentioned

wa 13kor 12kusu 8akusu 5no 5hine 4kusu ne 3awa 3Wa 2kane 2konno 2a 2korka 2p 2ciki 2ruwe ne 2yakun 1orowa(no) 1rapok(ke) 1-no 1sekor 1kuni 1kunak 1yak 1Akusu 1Yakun 1Yak 1pirka 1wen 1ka 1Yakka 1yakka pirka 1yakka wen 1wa kusu 1hi kusu 1hawe ne 1ruwe ne akusu 1hawe ne yakun 1hawe ne kusu 1kusu ne ruwe ne 1

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A claim is one proposition; under it stand the statements of each source, with the stance that source takes. Claims are grouped by a model from the extracted statements and carry that status until reviewed.

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Finite clauses joined by post-predicate particles 17 claims ·14 sentences· 1 examples

How are finite clauses joined, and what particles follow the predicate?

  1. Sentence conjoining in Ainu is generally performed by conjunctionalizers directly following the first predicate and turning it into an adjunct of the second predicate.
    アイヌ語における文の接続は一般に、第1述語の直後に接続化辞が後続してそれを第2述語の付加語とすることによって行われる。
    form-function ainu most
    asserts refsing1986
  2. Intonation binds the conjunctionalizer closely to the verb expression of the clause it marks, so that it precedes the interclausal pause.
    イントネーション上、接続語化辞はそれが標識する節の動詞表現と密接に結びつき、節間の休止に先行する。
    distribution ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  3. Conjunctive particles frequently follow a clause boundary with sentence-final intonation and are uttered together with the subsequent clause.
    接続助詞は文末イントネーションを伴う文の切れ目の後に置かれ、後続の文とともに発話されることも少なくない。
    distribution ainu some
    reports nakagawa2024
  4. There are no participles, converbs, or other standard non-finite forms in Ainu.
    アイヌ語には形動詞、副動詞、その他の標準的な非定形形式は存在しない。
    absence ainu none
    asserts bugaeva2022
  5. Complex clauses can be formed by linking multiple verb phrases using conjunctive particles.
    接続助詞を用いることによって複数の動詞部（VP）を重ねて複文を作ることができる。
    existence sakhalin generic
    asserts murasaki2025
  6. In Ainu, particularly in the Saru and Chitose dialects, verbs functioning as main verbs fundamentally cannot be linked directly without connective particles or other mediating elements.
    アイヌ語（特に沙流・千歳方言）では、主動詞とみなされるものが接続助詞などを介さずに直接連結することはないのが基本である。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose usually
    asserts nakagawa2024
  7. In some dialects, under certain conditions, main verbs themselves can link directly without having undergone conversion to another part of speech.
    方言によっては、品詞転換した形ではなく主動詞そのものが一定の条件下で連結する場合もある。
    variation ainu exists
    asserts nakagawa2024
  8. Conjunctive particles connect clauses to clauses or verb phrases to verb phrases, relating the meanings expressed by preceding and following clauses or phrases, and form the core of conjunctive clauses.
    接続助詞は文と文、動詞句と動詞句をつなぎ、前後の文や句で表された意味を関係づける役割を果たすものであり、接続句の中心をなすものである。
    form-function ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  9. A connective phrase can follow a verb phrase or a sentence ending in a sentence-final phrase with ne to link clauses together.
    動詞句、および文末句のうち ne で終わっている文の後ろには接続句を置いて、文と文をつなげることができる。
    distribution ainu generic ne
    asserts nakagawa2024
  10. A conjunctionalizer is modified by a sentence and serves to embed it as an adverbial adjunct to the final predicate.
    接続詞化辞（conjunctionalizer）は文によって修飾され、その文を文末述語に対する副詞的付加部として埋め込む働きをする。
    form-function all
    asserts refsing1986
  11. Some conjunctionalizers may be preceded by a juncture pause between the predicate and the conjunctionalizer, causing them to resemble a free conjunction.
    接続語尾の中には述語との間に休止（ジャンクチャー）を伴うことがあり、それによって接続詞のような自立形式に似た振る舞いを見せるものがある。
    variation ainu exists
    asserts refsing1986
  12. Conjunctionalizers are bound forms that are modified by a sentence which becomes embedded as an adjunct, usually adverbially related, to a new predicate.
    接続語化辞（conjunctionalizer）は文によって修飾される結合形式であり、修飾する文は通常副詞的に関係づけられながら新たな述語の付加詞として埋め込まれる。
    analysis ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  13. Conjunctionalized sentences function as adverbial adjuncts, whereas nominalized sentences function as relational adjuncts.
    接続節化された文は副詞的付加語となるのに対し、名詞化された文は関係的付加語となる。
    analysis ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  14. Both conjunctionalized and nominalized sentences may be followed by restrictive postpositions, but only nominalized sentences may take case postpositions.
    接続節化された文と名詞化された文はともに限定後置詞を後続させうるが、格後置詞を後続させることができるのは名詞化された文だけである。
    distribution ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  15. If a predicate is followed by a conjunctionalizer, a nominalizer, or a quotationalizer, it becomes subordinate to another predicate or embedded within another sentence as a secondary predicate.
    述語に接続化辞、名詞化辞、または引用化辞が後続する場合、それは副次述語へと格下げされ、他の述語に従属するか他の文に埋め込まれる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  16. Conjunctive particles (setsuzoku-joshi) are particles placed after a verb phrase that serve to link it with a subsequent verb phrase.
    動詞句の後ろに置かれて，その後の動詞句とつなぐ役割を果たす助詞を接続助詞と言う。
    terminology hokkaido generic
    asserts sato2008
  17. Subordinating conjunctions occur after subordinated clauses, which precede main clauses.
    従属接続詞は主節に先行する従属節の後に生起する。
    ordering ainu all
    asserts shibatani1990
a=yupi-hi i=resu hine oka=an pe ne hike
4.POSS=elder.brother-POSS 4.O=raise CONJ exist.PL=4.S NMLZ COP CONJ
‘My elder brother raised me, and we lived on, and …’
nakagawa2024:346 SAR Nakagawa ex. 634

Inventory and routing 42 claims ·6 sentences

What is the full set of clause-linking morphemes, and how are they categorized?

  1. In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particle 'ike indicates that an action follows immediately upon the preceding action or that the preceding action causes the following action.
    樺太アイヌ語において、接続助詞 'ike は前の行動に引き続いて次の行動が行われることや、前の行動が後の行動の原因を表すことを示す。
    form-function sakhalin specific 'ike
    asserts murasaki2025
  2. In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particle yayne indicates that a long-continued or repeated action culminates in a subsequent event.
    樺太アイヌ語において、接続助詞 yayne は長く継続または反復された動作の終わりに次の動作・事象が起こることを表す。
    form-function sakhalin specific yayne
    asserts murasaki2025
  3. ruwe is used as a conjunctive particle.
    ruwe はまず接続助詞として用いられる。
    form-function generic ruwe
    asserts kindaichi1936
  4. shiri is used as a conjunctive particle.
    shiri は接続助詞として用いられる。
    form-function all shiri
    asserts kindaichi1936
  5. The conjunctive particle teh indicates that one action is completed before the next action takes place.
    接続助詞 teh は、一つの行動が終わって次の行動が行われることを表す。
    form-function sakhalin teh
    asserts murasaki2025
  6. 'ike is a conjunctive particle meaning 'when...', 'and then...'.
    'ike は「～すると～だ」「～して～だ」を表す接続助詞である。
    form-function sakhalin 'ike
    asserts murasaki2025
  7. Particles that attach to a verb so that the whole clause functions as an adverbial clause, continuing the sentence with a certain meaning, are called adverbial conjunctions (接続助詞).
    動詞に接続して、全体が副詞節として働き、ある意味を付して文を続ける機能を持つ助詞を接続助詞 (adverbial conjunction, ac) と呼ぶ。
    terminology sakhalin all
    asserts murasaki2025
  8. Multiple adverbial conjunctions can be used within a single sentence.
    接続助詞は一文中に複数用いることも可能である。
    distribution sakhalin generic
    asserts murasaki2025
  9. The conjunctive particle 'omantene indicates that a subsequent action is arrived at after an action has been repeated many times ('after doing ~ repeatedly, after doing ~ to exhaustion'), often with a discontinuity or lack of relation between the two actions.
    接続助詞 'omantene は《さんざん〜したあげく、何度も〜したあとで》を表し、何度もある行動が行われた後に次の行動に帰着することを示し、前行と後行の動作が不連続で無関係のことが多い。
    form-function sakhalin generic 'omantene
    asserts murasaki2025
  10. The parallel usage presents noun phrases coordinated as 'whether X or Y' or 'both X and Y' by combining the verb ne or iki with a conjunctive particle.
    並列用法は、「〜であれ〜であれ」「〜も〜も」のように、名詞句を並列的に並べて提示する表現として、ne あるいは iki という動詞＋接続助詞を組み合わせて示す用法を指す。
    form-function hokkaido generic neiki
    asserts nakagawa2024
  11. Some researchers view neyakka and similar forms as single words and treat them as adverbial particles, because their usage shares features with adverbial particles such as ka, hene, hem, and hemem.
    副助詞 ka、hene、hem、hemem の用法と共通するものがあるため、neyakka 等を一語と見て副助詞として扱う研究者もいる。
    analysis hokkaido neyakkakahenehemhemem
    reports nakagawa2024
  12. Elements that perform the grammatical function of connecting clauses are termed 'connective phrases' (setsuzoku-ku), and unlike Japanese connective particles, they do not belong to either the preceding or following clause.
    文と文を接続する文法的な機能を担った要素を「接続句」と呼ぶが、日本語の接続助詞と異なり、接続句は前後のどちらの文にも属さない。
    analysis ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  13. Connecting phrases (接続句) in Ainu consist of conjunctional particles, formal nouns, and adverbial phrases.
    アイヌ語の接続句は、接続助詞、形式名詞、副詞句で構成される。
    membership ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  14. In verse and conventional fixed expressions, clauses can appear in juxtaposition without a connecting phrase between main verbs.
    韻文や常套的な表現の場合には、接続句を介さずに主動詞同士が並ぶ形もよく見られる。
    distribution ainu generic
    asserts nakagawa2024
  15. Conjunctionalizers in Shizunai can be classified semantically into seven groups: coordinative, sequential, contemporal, consequential, concessive, conditional, and adversative.
    静内方言の接続語化辞は意味的基準により、等位、継起、同時、帰結、譲歩、条件、逆接の7群に下位分類できる。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  16. Coordinative conjunctionalizers mainly function to juxtapose two predicates without emphasizing any particular relationship between them.
    等位接続語化辞は主として2つの述語の間に特定の関係を強調することなく並置する機能を果たす。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic
    asserts refsing1986
  17. The coordinative conjunctionalizers in the Shizunai dialect are wa, no, hine, hike, and ranke.
    静内方言における等位接続語化辞は、wa、no、hine、hike、ranke である。
    membership hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all wanohinehikeranke
    asserts refsing1986
  18. Wa is the most frequent coordinative conjunctionalizer, found across all dialects of Ainu with roughly the same meaning and function.
    wa は等位接続語化辞の中で最も高頻度であり、アイヌ語の全方言においてほぼ同様の意味と機能で見出される。
    frequency ainu all wa
    asserts refsing1986
  19. The conjunction no occurs in the Saru and Raychishka dialects with approximately the same applications as in Shizunai.
    接続詞 no は沙流方言およびライチシカ方言にも見られ、静内方言とほぼ同様の用法を持つ。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/sarusakhalin no
    reports refsing1986
  20. The functions of hine are very close to those of wa, enumerating events with the temporal implication that the conjoined event precedes the following one or expresses the circumstances under which it is realized.
    hine の機能は wa にきわめて近く、事象を列挙し、接続された節が次の節より前に起こるという時間的含意、あるいは次の節が実現される状況を表すという含意を伴うことがある。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai hinewa
    asserts refsing1986
  21. wa establishes a closer connection between two predicates than hine does.
    wa は二つの述語の間に hine よりも緊密な結合を確立する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai wahine
    asserts refsing1986
  22. hine is also used in the Saru dialect with more or less the same functions as in Shizunai.
    hine は沙流方言でも用いられ、静内方言とほぼ同一の機能を有する。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/southwest/shizunai hine
    reports refsing1986
  23. hike functions basically to juxtapose clauses without hinting at any special relationship between them, indicating a much more distant connection than wa, no, or hine.
    hike は基本的に節間に特別な関係を示唆することなく並置する機能を持ち、wa、no、あるいは hine よりもはるかに緩やかな結合を示す。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai hikewanohine
    asserts refsing1986
  24. When the main predicate indicates a surprising or unexpected development in relation to the conjunctionalized clause, hike has a sequential meaning resembling akus.
    主述語が接続助詞節に対して意外または予期せぬ展開を示す場合、hike の意味は継起を表す接続助詞 akus に類似する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic hikeakus
    asserts refsing1986
  25. The particle hike can function as a concessive or adversative conjunctionalizer approaching yakka or korka in meaning when the following clause contrasts with the conjunctionalized clause.
    後続の節が接続助詞節と対照をなす場合、hike は譲歩あるいは逆接の接続助詞として機能し、意味上 yakka や korka に近くなる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic hikeyakkakorka
    asserts refsing1986
  26. In its concessive or adversative function, hike is frequently reinforced by the restrictive postposition ka.
    譲歩あるいは逆接の機能において、hike は限定後置副助詞 ka によって強められることが頻繁にある。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually hikeka
    asserts refsing1986
  27. Chiri treats hike as a sequential conjunctional particle (setsuzokujoshi).
    知里は hike を継起の意味を持つ接続助詞として分類している。
    analysis ainu hike
    reports refsing1986
  28. Because hike clauses form adverbial adjuncts rather than relational adjuncts, hike is analyzed as a conjunctionalizer rather than a nominalizer in Shizunai Ainu.
    hike 節は関係的付加詞ではなく副詞的付加詞を形成するため、静内アイヌ語において hike は名詞化辞ではなく接続助詞として分析される。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all hike
    asserts refsing1986
  29. The morpheme ranke can function as a conjunctionalizer on whole sentences, indicating that an action happens repeatedly or that two or more actions are performed alternately.
    ranke は文全体に付いて接続助詞として機能し、事象が複数回生じること、あるいは2つ以上の動作が交互に行われることを表す。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ranke
    asserts refsing1986
  30. When ranke expresses alternating actions, it is repeated after each verb.
    ranke が交互に行われる動作を表す場合、各動詞の後に反復される。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ranke
    asserts refsing1986
  31. Sequential conjunctionalizers indicate a temporal relationship where the events of the conjunctionalized embedded clause precede those of the main predicate.
    継起接続助詞は、接続節の出来事が主述語の出来事に先行するという時間的関係を表す。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  32. The sequential conjunctionalizers in the Shizunai dialect include tek, ayne, akus, and konno.
    静内方言における継起接続助詞のグループには、tek、ayne、akus、konnoが含まれる。
    membership hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all tekayneakuskonno
    asserts refsing1986
  33. The coordinative conjunctionalizer hike may appear with a meaning very similar to that of akus.
    並立の接続助詞hikeは、akusと非常によく似た意味で現れることがある。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai hikeakus
    asserts refsing1986
  34. The conjunctive particle ayne expresses 'as a result of continuing to do...'.
    接続助詞 ayne は「～し続けた結果」を表す。
    form-function hokkaido generic ayne
    asserts sato2008
  35. The conjunctive particle hine expresses sequential connection ('and then').
    接続助詞 hine は継起関係（「～て」）を表す。
    form-function hokkaido generic hine
    asserts sato2008
  36. To express sequence or attendant circumstance in negative expressions ('without doing...'), the form no is used almost regularly instead of wa or kor.
    「〜しないで」のような否定の表現に継起関係や付帯状況の接続助詞を用いたい場合，wa や kor の代わりにほぼ規則的に no という形式が用いられる。
    distribution hokkaido usually nowakor
    asserts sato2008
  37. The form kane can also function as a conjunctive particle.
    kane は接続助詞的にも用いられる。
    distribution generic kane
    asserts sato2008
  38. hike functions as a conjunctive particle meaning 'and then / doing...'.
    hike は「〜て」を意味する接続助詞として機能する。
    form-function hike
    asserts sato2008
  39. ike functions as a conjunctive particle meaning 'and then / doing...'.
    ike は「〜て」を意味する接続助詞である。
    form-function ike
    asserts sato2008
  40. ine functions as a conjunctive particle meaning 'and then / doing...'.
    ine は「〜て」を意味する接続助詞である。
    form-function ine
    asserts sato2008
  41. ma functions as a conjunctive particle meaning 'and then / doing...'.
    ma は「〜て」を意味する接続助詞である。
    form-function ma
    asserts sato2008
  42. no functions as a conjunctive particle meaning 'and then / doing...'.
    no は「〜て」を意味する接続助詞として機能する。
    form-function no
    asserts sato2008

The coordination–subordination continuum 2 claims ·9 sentences· 3 examples

Do clause-linkage types form a continuum, and where do specific markers fall?

  1. Because distinguishing main and subordinate clauses morphosyntactically is not well-motivated, this grammar does not posit a distinct grammatical level of 'clause' (setsu) between phrase and sentence.
    主節と従属節を容易に区別できない等の理由から、本書では句と文の間に「節」というレベルを設けない分析をとる。
    analysis ainu all
    proposes nakagawa2024
  2. The notions of 'main clause' and 'subordinate clause' cannot be straightforwardly applied to Ainu syntax.
    アイヌ語には、日本語や英語の文法で用いられる「主文」や「従属文」という考え方をそのまま適用することはできない。
    analysis ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
micipa ku=kar hine ohaw or k=omare
honewort 1SG.A=gather CONJ soup place 1SG.A=put.in
‘I gathered honewort and put it into the soup.’
sato2008:44 SAR
hekaci suma osura wa ontaro hokus
child stone throw CONJ barrel fall.over
‘The child threw a stone, and the barrel fell over.’
sato2008:45 SAR
kanpi ku=sanke ru-we ne akusu itasa kanpi ek ru-we ne
letter 1SG.A=send.out track-POSS COP CONJ in.return letter come track-POSS COP
‘I sent a letter, and a reply came.’
sato2008:47sato2009:52 CHI

Reference tracking without switch-reference morphology 11 sentences· 1 examples

How is participant reference tracked across linked clauses without switch-reference morphology?

ku=caranke ka somo ki no ku=hosipi
1SG.S=complain even NEG do CONJ 1SG.S=return
‘I went home without complaining.’
sato2008:44 SAR

Condition, concession, cause, and the mood of the matrix clause 5 claims ·10 sentences· 3 examples

How do conditional, concessive, and causal linkers interact with the matrix clause's mood?

  1. The conditional conjunction yakun 'if' and a few other conditional conjunctions may be placed at the head of a sentence or main clause.
    条件接続詞yakun「もし」および他の少数の条件接続詞は、文（または主節）の頭に置かれることがある。
    distribution ainu exists yakun
    reports bugaeva2022
  2. ne ciki is used in the sense of 'if it is...', but examples of its parallel usage have not been confirmed.
    ne ciki は「〜であるならば」という意味では使われるが、並列用法の例は確認できていない。
    absence hokkaido none ne ciki
    asserts nakagawa2024
  3. The conjunctive particles expressing hypothetical conditions include ciki, yak, yakun, and yakne.
    仮説的条件を表す接続助詞には ciki, yak, yakun, yakne がある。
    membership ainu generic cikiyakyakunyakne
    asserts sato2008
  4. The conjunctive particle akusu expresses factual conditions.
    接続助詞 akusu は事実的条件を表す。
    form-function ainu generic akusu
    asserts sato2008
  5. The conjunctive particle kor is used for both hypothetical and factual conditions, as well as for simultaneity or manner.
    接続助詞 kor は仮説的条件と事実的条件の両方に用いられ、さらに同時性や様態を示す用法もある。
    form-function ainu generic kor
    asserts sato2008
e=ype rusuy haw-e ne yakun tan kaboca e
2SG.S=eat.a.meal DES voice-POSS COP CONJ this pumpkin eat
‘If you are saying that you are hungry, eat this pumpkin.’
sato2009:52 CHI Satō ex. 28
apto as yakka upas as yakka wakka poro yakka sonno k=ek kusne wa
rain fall CONJ snow fall CONJ water be.big CONJ truly 1SG.S=come intend FIN
‘Even if it rains, even if it snows, even if there is a flood, I will truly come.’
ijas2023 constructed
sisam itak ani ku=respa p ne kusu aynu itak sinep ka erampewtek pa
Japanese language INS 1SG.A=raise NMLZ COP CONJ Ainu language one even not.understand PL
‘Because I raised them in Japanese, they do not understand even one word of Ainu.’
nakagawa2024:353 SAR Nakagawa ex. 672

Interfaces with evidentiality, complementation, and reported speech 3 claims ·12 sentences· 1 examples

How do clause linkers combine with evidential markers and complementizers?

  1. Ainu has four types of sentence conversion: conjunctionalization, nominalization, quotationalization, and adnominalization.
    アイヌ語には、接続化（conjunctionalization）、名詞化（nominalization）、引用化（quotationalization）、連体修飾化（adnominalization）という4種類の文転換が存在する。
    analysis ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  2. In Tamura's model of Ainu, a conjunctional particle attaches to a verbal form to yield an adverbial form.
    田村によるアイヌ語のモデルでは、接続助詞は動詞形に接続して副詞形を形成する。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/saru all
    reports refsing1986
  3. In Ainu, adverbialization cannot be distinguished from conjunctionalization as a sentence conversion process.
    アイヌ語において、文変換プロセスとしての副詞化は接続化と区別することができない。
    analysis ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
tap a=ye katu Piratur sekor a=ye haw-e ne
now 4.A=say way Piratur QUOT 4.A=say voice-POSS COP
‘The way it is said now is to call it Piratur.’
nakagawa2024:393 SAR Nakagawa ex. 778, after Kawamura 1985: 30

Dialect and comparative edges 12 claims ·7 sentences· 1 examples

How does the inventory of clause linkers vary across dialects?

  1. In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particle 'ike expresses sequential linkage meaning 'when... then...', 'and then...'.
    樺太アイヌ語の接続助詞 'ike は「～すると～だ、～して～だ、～して～して～だ」という意味を表す。
    form-function sakhalin generic 'ike
    asserts murasaki2025
  2. Among elderly speakers of Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particles koh and kohki mean 'when, as soon as, at the same time as'.
    樺太アイヌ語の古老層において、接続助詞 koh および kohki は「〜すると、〜したとたん、同時に」を意味する。
    form-function sakhalin generic kohkohki
    asserts murasaki2025
  3. In parallel usage, ne yakka is used in Saru, Chitose, Horobetsu, Shizunai, and Ishikari; ne yakkay in Tokachi and Shiranuka; ene yakkay and ene ne yakkay also frequently occur in Tokachi; and ne yakkayki is frequently used in Kushiro.
    並列用法において、沙流・千歳・幌別・静内・石狩では ne yakka、十勝・白糠では ne yakkay、十勝では ene yakkay や ene ne yakkay、釧路では ne yakkayki という形もよく使われる。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitosehokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/southwest/shizunaihokkaido/central/ishikarihokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/northeast/kushiro ne yakkane yakkayene yakkayene ne yakkayne yakkayki
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. iki yakkay(ki) is frequently used in the Kushiro dialect, but is also found in Saru and Horobetsu dialects, and is considered mainly a poetic/verse expression.
    iki yakkay(ki) は釧路方言で多く使われる形だが、沙流方言や幌別方言にも見られ、おもに韻文的な表現と思われる。
    variation hokkaido/northeast/kushirohokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/southwest/horobetsu iki yakkayiki yakkayki
    proposes nakagawa2024
  5. While the requirement of a connecting phrase between main verbs holds well for Saru, Chitose, and Horobetsu, in Tokachi and Ishikari dialects main verbs can appear consecutively without a connecting phrase or can merge into a single word.
    主動詞間に接続句が必要という原則は沙流・千歳・幌別方言にはよく当てはまるが、十勝方言や石狩方言などでは接続句を介さずに主動詞同士が連続したり、動詞が合体して一語になったりする場合がある。
    variation hokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/central/ishikari generic
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. Direct verb serialization or verb merger without a connecting phrase in dialects like Tokachi and Ishikari occurs in specific semantic relations: manner of action, continuation of state/action, and temporal sequence of actions.
    十勝方言や石狩方言などで接続句を介さない動詞連続や合体が見られるのは、「動作とその様態」「状態・動作の継続」「動作の時間的な連続」という一定の意味関係がある場合である。
    distribution hokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/central/ishikari generic
    asserts nakagawa2024
  7. In expressions of manner through verb serialization, the preceding verb element is frequently kor 'have' or (h)oyuppa 'run'.
    動詞連続により動作の様態を表現する場合、前部要素には kor「〜を持つ」や (h)oyuppa「走る」の例が多い。
    frequency hokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/central/ishikari usually koroyuppahoyuppa
    asserts nakagawa2024
  8. In the Ishikari dialect, kor 'have' and ek 'come (sg.)' can merge into a single compound verb korek.
    石狩方言には kor「〜を持つ」と ek「来る（単）」が一体化して korek となる例がある。
    existence hokkaido/central/ishikari exists korekkorek
    asserts nakagawa2024
  9. In western Hokkaido dialects such as Saru, Chitose, and Horobetsu, sequential or overlapping verb actions are usually joined by a conjunctive particle, whereas eastern dialects like Tokachi, Ishikari, and Shiranuka tend either to juxtapose verbs directly or fuse them into a single word.
    沙流・千歳・幌別などの北海道西部の方言では時間的に連続・重複する動作に接続助詞を挟むのが普通であるが、十勝・石狩・白糠など東部の方言では動詞同士を直接並置するか、動詞を融合させて一語にする傾向がある。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitosehokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/central/ishikari usually
    asserts nakagawa2024
  10. There are fewer than twenty different conjunctionalizers in the Shizunai dialect.
    静内方言には20未満の異なる接続語化辞が存在する。
    membership hokkaido/southwest/shizunai measured
    asserts refsing1986
  11. In the Horobetsu dialect, evidentiality markers function as adverbial clause markers.
    幌別方言において、証拠性標識は副詞節標識として機能する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/horobetsu generic
    asserts takahashi2022
  12. When co-occurring with a conjunction in Karafuto Ainu, -hci is omitted from the first verb.
    樺太アイヌ語において、接続詞［接続助詞］と共起する場合、第一の動詞から -hci は省略される。
    distribution sakhalin all -hci
    asserts tangiku2022
a=kor katkemat utar an=oskur kane kesto an konno oka=an
4.A=have lady PL 4.A=cherish CONJ every.day exist CONJ exist.PL=4.S
‘Cherishing our ladies, we lived on day after day.’
nakagawa2024:342 SHI Nakagawa ex. 617; Shizunai, after Okuda

Open points 3 sentences

What aspects of clause linkage remain uncertain or underdescribed?