Knowledge base · Part XVII — Clause Linkage and Adverbial Subordination · this topic as a network
131. Clause Linkage in Ainu: Typology and Inventory
How does the language link finite clauses, and what morphemes are used?
Finite clauses joined by post-predicate particles
How are finite clauses joined, and what particles follow the predicate?
Sentence conjoining in Ainu is generally performed by conjunctionalizers directly following the first predicate and turning it into an adjunct of the second predicate. (Refsing 1986) Intonation binds the conjunctionalizer closely to the verb expression of the clause it marks, so that it precedes the interclausal pause. (Refsing 1986: 238) Conjunctive particles frequently follow a clause boundary with sentence-final intonation and are uttered together with the subsequent clause. (reported in Nakagawa 2024: 514) There are no participles, converbs, or other standard non-finite forms in Ainu. (Bugaeva 2022: 20.6) Complex clauses can be formed by linking multiple verb phrases using conjunctive particles. (Murasaki 2025: 91) In Ainu, particularly in the Saru and Chitose dialects, verbs functioning as main verbs fundamentally cannot be linked directly without connective particles or other mediating elements. (Nakagawa 2024: 123) In some dialects, under certain conditions, main verbs themselves can link directly without having undergone conversion to another part of speech. (Nakagawa 2024: 123) Conjunctive particles connect clauses to clauses or verb phrases to verb phrases, relating the meanings expressed by preceding and following clauses or phrases, and form the core of conjunctive clauses. (Nakagawa 2024: 337) A connective phrase can follow a verb phrase or a sentence ending in a sentence-final phrase with ne to link clauses together. (Nakagawa 2024: 361) A conjunctionalizer is modified by a sentence and serves to embed it as an adverbial adjunct to the final predicate. (Refsing 1986: 81) Some conjunctionalizers may be preceded by a juncture pause between the predicate and the conjunctionalizer, causing them to resemble a free conjunction. (Refsing 1986) Conjunctionalizers are bound forms that are modified by a sentence which becomes embedded as an adjunct, usually adverbially related, to a new predicate. (Refsing 1986: 238) Conjunctionalized sentences function as adverbial adjuncts, whereas nominalized sentences function as relational adjuncts. (Refsing 1986: 258) Both conjunctionalized and nominalized sentences may be followed by restrictive postpositions, but only nominalized sentences may take case postpositions. (Refsing 1986: 258) If a predicate is followed by a conjunctionalizer, a nominalizer, or a quotationalizer, it becomes subordinate to another predicate or embedded within another sentence as a secondary predicate. (Refsing 1986: 271) Conjunctive particles (setsuzoku-joshi) are particles placed after a verb phrase that serve to link it with a subsequent verb phrase. (Satō 2008: 44) Subordinating conjunctions occur after subordinated clauses, which precede main clauses. (Shibatani 1990: 22)
Inventory and routing
What is the full set of clause-linking morphemes, and how are they categorized?
In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particle 'ike indicates that an action follows immediately upon the preceding action or that the preceding action causes the following action. (Murasaki 2025: 30, 95) In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particle yayne indicates that a long-continued or repeated action culminates in a subsequent event. (Murasaki 2025: 60, 96) ruwe is used as a conjunctive particle. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) shiri is used as a conjunctive particle. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The conjunctive particle teh indicates that one action is completed before the next action takes place. (Murasaki 2025: 30) 'ike is a conjunctive particle meaning 'when...', 'and then...'. (Murasaki 2025: 70) Particles that attach to a verb so that the whole clause functions as an adverbial clause, continuing the sentence with a certain meaning, are called adverbial conjunctions (接続助詞). (Murasaki 2025: 95) Multiple adverbial conjunctions can be used within a single sentence. (Murasaki 2025: 95) The conjunctive particle 'omantene indicates that a subsequent action is arrived at after an action has been repeated many times ('after doing ~ repeatedly, after doing ~ to exhaustion'), often with a discontinuity or lack of relation between the two actions. (Murasaki 2025: 96) The parallel usage presents noun phrases coordinated as 'whether X or Y' or 'both X and Y' by combining the verb ne or iki with a conjunctive particle. (Nakagawa 2024: 355) Some researchers view neyakka and similar forms as single words and treat them as adverbial particles, because their usage shares features with adverbial particles such as ka, hene, hem, and hemem. (reported in Nakagawa 2024: 356) Elements that perform the grammatical function of connecting clauses are termed 'connective phrases' (setsuzoku-ku), and unlike Japanese connective particles, they do not belong to either the preceding or following clause. (Nakagawa 2024: 514) Connecting phrases (接続句) in Ainu consist of conjunctional particles, formal nouns, and adverbial phrases. (Nakagawa 2024: 515) In verse and conventional fixed expressions, clauses can appear in juxtaposition without a connecting phrase between main verbs. (Nakagawa 2024: 518) Conjunctionalizers in Shizunai can be classified semantically into seven groups: coordinative, sequential, contemporal, consequential, concessive, conditional, and adversative. (Refsing 1986: 238) Coordinative conjunctionalizers mainly function to juxtapose two predicates without emphasizing any particular relationship between them. (Refsing 1986: 238) The coordinative conjunctionalizers in the Shizunai dialect are wa, no, hine, hike, and ranke. (Refsing 1986: 238) Wa is the most frequent coordinative conjunctionalizer, found across all dialects of Ainu with roughly the same meaning and function. (Refsing 1986: 238) The conjunction no occurs in the Saru and Raychishka dialects with approximately the same applications as in Shizunai. (reported in Refsing 1986: 242) The functions of hine are very close to those of wa, enumerating events with the temporal implication that the conjoined event precedes the following one or expresses the circumstances under which it is realized. (Refsing 1986: 242) wa establishes a closer connection between two predicates than hine does. (Refsing 1986: 242) hine is also used in the Saru dialect with more or less the same functions as in Shizunai. (reported in Refsing 1986: 242) hike functions basically to juxtapose clauses without hinting at any special relationship between them, indicating a much more distant connection than wa, no, or hine. (Refsing 1986: 242) When the main predicate indicates a surprising or unexpected development in relation to the conjunctionalized clause, hike has a sequential meaning resembling akus. (Refsing 1986: 244) The particle hike can function as a concessive or adversative conjunctionalizer approaching yakka or korka in meaning when the following clause contrasts with the conjunctionalized clause. (Refsing 1986: 244) In its concessive or adversative function, hike is frequently reinforced by the restrictive postposition ka. (Refsing 1986: 244) Chiri treats hike as a sequential conjunctional particle (setsuzokujoshi). (reported in Refsing 1986: 244) Because hike clauses form adverbial adjuncts rather than relational adjuncts, hike is analyzed as a conjunctionalizer rather than a nominalizer in Shizunai Ainu. (Refsing 1986: 244) The morpheme ranke can function as a conjunctionalizer on whole sentences, indicating that an action happens repeatedly or that two or more actions are performed alternately. (Refsing 1986: 244) When ranke expresses alternating actions, it is repeated after each verb. (Refsing 1986: 244) Sequential conjunctionalizers indicate a temporal relationship where the events of the conjunctionalized embedded clause precede those of the main predicate. (Refsing 1986: 246) The sequential conjunctionalizers in the Shizunai dialect include tek, ayne, akus, and konno. (Refsing 1986: 246) The coordinative conjunctionalizer hike may appear with a meaning very similar to that of akus. (Refsing 1986: 248) The conjunctive particle ayne expresses 'as a result of continuing to do...'. (Satō 2008: 44) The conjunctive particle hine expresses sequential connection ('and then'). (Satō 2008: 44) To express sequence or attendant circumstance in negative expressions ('without doing...'), the form no is used almost regularly instead of wa or kor. (Satō 2008: 45) The form kane can also function as a conjunctive particle. (Satō 2008: 82) hike functions as a conjunctive particle meaning 'and then / doing...'. (Satō 2008: 367) ike functions as a conjunctive particle meaning 'and then / doing...'. (Satō 2008: 368) ine functions as a conjunctive particle meaning 'and then / doing...'. (Satō 2008: 368) ma functions as a conjunctive particle meaning 'and then / doing...'. (Satō 2008: 370) no functions as a conjunctive particle meaning 'and then / doing...'. (Satō 2008: 371)
The coordination–subordination continuum
Do clause-linkage types form a continuum, and where do specific markers fall?
Because distinguishing main and subordinate clauses morphosyntactically is not well-motivated, this grammar does not posit a distinct grammatical level of 'clause' (setsu) between phrase and sentence. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 363) The notions of 'main clause' and 'subordinate clause' cannot be straightforwardly applied to Ainu syntax. (Nakagawa 2024: 514)
Reference tracking without switch-reference morphology
How is participant reference tracked across linked clauses without switch-reference morphology?
Condition, concession, cause, and the mood of the matrix clause
How do conditional, concessive, and causal linkers interact with the matrix clause's mood?
The conditional conjunction yakun 'if' and a few other conditional conjunctions may be placed at the head of a sentence or main clause. (reported in Bugaeva 2022: 1.6) ne ciki is used in the sense of 'if it is...', but examples of its parallel usage have not been confirmed. (Nakagawa 2024: 356) The conjunctive particles expressing hypothetical conditions include ciki, yak, yakun, and yakne. (Satō 2008: 47) The conjunctive particle akusu expresses factual conditions. (Satō 2008: 47) The conjunctive particle kor is used for both hypothetical and factual conditions, as well as for simultaneity or manner. (Satō 2008: 47)
Interfaces with evidentiality, complementation, and reported speech
How do clause linkers combine with evidential markers and complementizers?
Ainu has four types of sentence conversion: conjunctionalization, nominalization, quotationalization, and adnominalization. (Refsing 1986: 34) In Tamura's model of Ainu, a conjunctional particle attaches to a verbal form to yield an adverbial form. (reported in Refsing 1986: 48) In Ainu, adverbialization cannot be distinguished from conjunctionalization as a sentence conversion process. (Refsing 1986: 48)
Dialect and comparative edges
How does the inventory of clause linkers vary across dialects?
In Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particle 'ike expresses sequential linkage meaning 'when... then...', 'and then...'. (Murasaki 2025: 45) Among elderly speakers of Sakhalin Ainu, the conjunctive particles koh and kohki mean 'when, as soon as, at the same time as'. (Murasaki 2025: 47) In parallel usage, ne yakka is used in Saru, Chitose, Horobetsu, Shizunai, and Ishikari; ne yakkay in Tokachi and Shiranuka; ene yakkay and ene ne yakkay also frequently occur in Tokachi; and ne yakkayki is frequently used in Kushiro. (Nakagawa 2024: 356) iki yakkay(ki) is frequently used in the Kushiro dialect, but is also found in Saru and Horobetsu dialects, and is considered mainly a poetic/verse expression. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 356) While the requirement of a connecting phrase between main verbs holds well for Saru, Chitose, and Horobetsu, in Tokachi and Ishikari dialects main verbs can appear consecutively without a connecting phrase or can merge into a single word. (Nakagawa 2024: 518) Direct verb serialization or verb merger without a connecting phrase in dialects like Tokachi and Ishikari occurs in specific semantic relations: manner of action, continuation of state/action, and temporal sequence of actions. (Nakagawa 2024: 518) In expressions of manner through verb serialization, the preceding verb element is frequently kor 'have' or (h)oyuppa 'run'. (Nakagawa 2024: 519) In the Ishikari dialect, kor 'have' and ek 'come (sg.)' can merge into a single compound verb korek. (Nakagawa 2024: 519) In western Hokkaido dialects such as Saru, Chitose, and Horobetsu, sequential or overlapping verb actions are usually joined by a conjunctive particle, whereas eastern dialects like Tokachi, Ishikari, and Shiranuka tend either to juxtapose verbs directly or fuse them into a single word. (Nakagawa 2024) There are fewer than twenty different conjunctionalizers in the Shizunai dialect. (Refsing 1986: 238) In the Horobetsu dialect, evidentiality markers function as adverbial clause markers. (Takahashi 2022: 18.7) When co-occurring with a conjunction in Karafuto Ainu, -hci is omitted from the first verb. (Tangiku 2022: 9.6)