132. Sequential wa and Clause Chaining

Overview 9 claims ·5 sentences

What is the core function of the most common conjunctive particle in the language?

1. The connective particle wa is thought to derive from the ablative particle wa transferred to temporal relations, indicating that an action concludes and another action follows it.
   接続助詞 wa は奪格の wa が時間関係に転用されたものと考えられ、ある動作が終わって他の動作がそれに続くことを示す。
   form-function wa
   proposes kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 proposes checked
2. wa connects clauses with the meaning of sequential action ("doing ... and then doing ...").
   wa は「～して～する」という前後の動作の接続を表す。
   form-function sakhalin wa
   asserts murasaki2025
   • murasaki2025:59 asserts checked
3. When two action verbs are conjoined, the conjunctive particle wa is used, but when the first verb expresses a property or state, no is used.
   2つの動作動詞を接続する際には接続助詞waが用いられるが、第1の動詞が属性や状態を表す場合にはnoが用いられる。
   distribution ainu usually wano
   asserts nakagawa2022pos
   • nakagawa2022pos:14.2 asserts anchored
4. In the Horobetsu, Saru, and Chitose dialects, successive events are primarily linked with wa and hine, while tek is overwhelmingly used as an auxiliary verb indicating that an action occurred in a light, short time.
   幌別、沙流、千歳方言では、継起は主に wa および hine で表され、tek は動作が軽微で短い時間で行われたことを表す補助動詞として圧倒的に用いられる。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose usually wahinetek
   asserts nakagawafukazawa2022
   • nakagawafukazawa2022:8.4 asserts checked
5. In the Shizunai, Samani, Tokachi, Kushiro, Shiranuka, and Ishikari dialects, tek is frequently used as a conjunctional particle linking successive events.
   静内、様似、十勝、釧路、白糠、石狩などの諸方言では、tek は継起の接続助詞として頻繁に用いられる。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunaihokkaido/southwest/samanihokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/northeast/kushirohokkaido/central/ishikari usually tek
   asserts nakagawafukazawa2022
   • nakagawafukazawa2022:8.4 asserts checked
6. The conjunctive particle wa is one of the most frequently used words in Ainu.
   接続助詞 wa は，アイヌ語の単語の中でも最も使用頻度が高い語の一つである。
   frequency hokkaido generic wa
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:45 asserts checked
7. Wa functions as a coordinate conjunctive particle linking clauses.
   wa は節を連結する等位接続不変化詞として機能する。
   form-function ainu all wa
   asserts shibatani1990
   • shibatani1990 asserts checked
8. In the Sakhalin dialect, wa is used to link two simultaneous activities that are perceived as forming one coherent action.
   樺太方言では、wa は単一のまとまった動作として知覚される2つの同時的な活動を表すのにも用いられる。
   form-function sakhalin generic wa
   asserts shibatani1990
   • shibatani1990 asserts checked
9. The conjunctive particle wa is limited to conjoining sentences and verbal phrases.
   接続助詞 wa は文および動詞句の結合に限定される。
   distribution ainu all wa
   asserts shibatani1990
   • shibatani1990:22 asserts checked

Three semantic readings 17 claims ·7 sentences· 2 examples

What semantic interpretations does this particle have and what conditions determine each?

1. In northern dialects, the sequential connective function of wa is sometimes expressed by tek.
   北部方言では接続助詞 wa の働きを tek で表すことがある。
   variation tekwa
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
2. The conjunction wa generally indicates sequential coordination of events, but can also indicate simultaneous events in constructions such as kotan epunkine wa an 'is watching over the village'.
   wa は一般に異時並列の関係であるが、kotan epunkine wa an のような場合には同時である。
   form-function usually wa
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
3. In colloquial Iburi Ainu, wa is omitted only in the combinations rai (wa) oman, kor (wa) oman, and kor (wa) ek.
   胆振地方の口語では、rai (wa) oman、kor (wa) oman、kor (wa) ek の場合に限って wa を省く。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/horobetsu warai omankor omankor ek
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
4. The conjunctive particle wa indicates that the preceding and following actions combine into a single integrated action ('doing ~ and ~').
   接続助詞 wa は《〜して〜する》を表し、前の行動と後の行動が一体となって一つのまとまった行動として表現し、混然として一つになった二つの動作に用いられる。
   form-function sakhalin generic wa
   asserts murasaki2025
   • murasaki2025:96 asserts checked
5. While wa ('and') can be used similarly to hine, wa is used when the actions of the preceding and following verb phrases are more closely related and unified into a single action, such as in cause-and-effect relations, manner/state descriptions, or continuous action chains.
   接続助詞 wa「〜して」は hine と同じようにも使われるが、前後の動詞句の表す行為が因果関係や状態・方法、一連の動作など、より密接に関連して一体化している場合に用いられる。
   form-function hokkaido generic wa
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:339 asserts checked
6. In Saru Ainu, wa, kor, and no can be distinguished based on the temporal phase of the preceding verb phrase: wa indicates a resulting state after an action has ended, kor indicates being in the middle of an action, and no indicates a state with no temporal change.
   沙流方言において、wa, kor, no は、前に来る動詞句の時間的な局面によって使い分けられていると言え、wa は動作・行為が終わったあとの結果の状態、kor は動作・行為が行われている最中、no は時間的な変化がない状態を表す。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru generic wakorno
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:341 asserts checked
7. Verbs like se express the motion up to carrying something on one's back, so that 'going with a load on one's back' is expressed as se wa arpa rather than *se kor arpa, which would mean setting off while loading the burden onto one's back.
   se「～を背負う」のような動詞は背負っていないものを背中に負うまでの動作を表しているため、「背中に荷物がある状態で行く」のは se wa arpa であり、se kor arpa は荷物を背中に担ぎ上げながら出発することを表すことになる。
   analysis hokkaido/southwest/saru generic se wa arpase kor arpa
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:341 asserts checked
8. Wa usually links two actions, states, or events by simply enumerating them without prioritizing one over the other.
   wa は通常、2つの動作、状態、または出来事を一方を他方より強調することなく単に列挙して結びつける。
   form-function ainu usually wa
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:238 asserts checked
9. Wa may sometimes indicate a slight temporal relationship, where the event in the conjunctionalized clause precedes the final predicate.
   wa は時にわずかな時間的関係を表すことがあり、その場合、接続語化された節の事象は主述語の事象より先行して生起する。
   form-function ainu exists wa
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:238 asserts checked
10. A clause conjunctionalized with wa may appear as a prerequisite describing the circumstances under which the action, event, or state expressed in the final predicate is realized.
    waによって接続文化された節は前提として現れることがあり、最終述語で表現される動作・出来事・状態が実現する状況を述べる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic wa
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:241 asserts checked
11. In all cases where wa is used, a very close connection between the conjunctionalized clause and the final predicate is indicated.
    waが用いられるすべての場合において、接続文化された節と最終述語との間の極めて緊密な関係が示される。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all wa
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:241 asserts checked
12. Western and southern Hokkaido dialects use wa or orwa instead of tek to express 'after (doing A, to do B)'.
    北海道西部・南部方言では、「（Aをして）から（Bをする）」という意味を表すのにtekではなくwaまたはorwaを用いる。
    variation hokkaido/southwest waorwa
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:246 asserts checked
13. Expressions linked by wa tend more strongly to represent a single cohesive unit of action as a whole, whereas expressions linked by hine show weaker cohesion.
    wa で結ばれた表現は全体としてひとまとまりの行為を表す傾向が強く，それに比べると hine で結ばれた表現はまとまりが弱い。
    form-function hokkaido generic wahine
    proposes sato2008
    • sato2008:44 proposes checked
14. The conjunctive particle wa expresses that an action is performed consecutively following another action, and this sequential meaning can be made explicit by a following adverbial phrase oro wa 'then'.
    接続助詞 wa は，ある行為に引き続いて別な行為が行われることを表し，副詞句 oro wa 「それから」が後続して継起の意味が明示されることもある。
    form-function hokkaido generic waoro wa
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:45 asserts checked
15. The conjunctive particle wa expresses that another action occurs because of a certain action, sometimes followed by the adverb kusu 'therefore'.
    接続助詞 wa は，ある行為が原因で別な行為が生ずることを表し，副詞 kusu 「それ故に」が後続することもある。
    form-function hokkaido generic wakusu
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:45 asserts checked
16. The conjunctive particle wa expresses attendant circumstance and the manner in which an action is performed.
    接続助詞 wa は，付帯状況，動作の行われ方を表す。
    form-function hokkaido generic wa
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:46 asserts checked
17. When wa indicates attendant circumstances, it often implies a certain chronological order rather than completely simultaneous actions.
    wa は付帯状況を示すことがあるが，全く同時進行の動作というよりはむしろ，ある程度の前後関係を含意する場合が多いようである。
    form-function hokkaido usually wa
    proposes sato2008
    • sato2008:46 proposes checked

Subject continuity: statistical preference without a constraint 3 claims ·7 sentences· 1 examples

How does subject continuity pattern in clauses linked by this particle?

1. The coordinating conjunction wa 'and' is the most commonly used coordinator and can join clauses even when their subjects are non-coreferential.
   等位接続詞 wa「そして」は最も頻繁に用いられる等位接続詞であり、主語が同一でない場合にも用いることができる。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest generic wa
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:496–497 asserts checked
2. In about 90% of the examples in the author's Shizunai corpus, the predicates joined by wa share the same subject.
   著者の静内方言資料における用例の約90%において、waによって結ばれた述語は同一の主語を持つ。
   frequency hokkaido/southwest/shizunai measured wa
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:241 asserts checked
3. Unlike Japanese -te, which requires the omitted subject of the main clause to be coreferential with the subject of the -te clause, Ainu wa appears to have no such constraint.
   日本語の「〜て」は省略されている主節の主語が「〜て」節の中の主語と同一であることを要求するが，アイヌ語の wa にはそのような制約がないようである。
   distribution hokkaido generic wa
   proposes sato2008
   • sato2008:46 proposes checked

Multi-clause chains in narrative 6 sentences· 1 examples

How are multiple clauses in narratives structured with this particle?

The culminative ayne 3 claims ·9 sentences· 1 examples

What form marks the endpoint of sustained effort and how does it differ from the sequential particle?

1. The conjunction aine (derived from a-hine) indicates the result of an action continuing for some time, with meanings such as 'in the course of doing...' or 'in the end'.
   aine (a-hine) は動作が若干時継続したその結果を示し、「……するほどに」「あげくに」等の意味である。
   form-function ainea-hine
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
2. Ayne relates two predicates temporally such that the main predicate is realized after the events of the embedded clause have been going on for some time, carrying a nuance of impatience on behalf of the speaker ('and then finally').
   ayneは2つの述語を時間的に結びつけ、従属節の出来事がしばらく続いた後に主述語が実現することを示し、話者の焦燥感のニュアンス（「…そしてとうとう…」）を伴う。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai ayne
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:246 asserts anchored
3. The implication of ayne that an act or event has been going on for a long time may be further clarified by using the iterative or durative auxiliary ...-a...-a.
   ayneが持つ行為や出来事が長時間続いていたという含意は、反復または継続の助動詞…-a…-aを用いることによってさらに明確にされ得る。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai ayne-a
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:246 asserts anchored

wa as a gateway to the auxiliary system 7 sentences· 2 examples

How is this particle used in periphrastic aspect constructions to express resultative or other nuances?

The dialectal allomorph ma 5 claims ·5 sentences

What phonetic alternation does the particle undergo after nasal-final stems?

1. In Saru Ainu, ma is an alternating form of the conjunctive particle wa.
   沙流アイヌ語において、maは接続助詞waの交替形である。
   alternation hokkaido/southwest/saru all mawa
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:303 asserts checked
   • sato2008:311 asserts checked
2. The conjunction wa has the allomorph ma after predicates ending in -n or -m.
   接続辞waは、-nまたは-mで終わる述語の後で異形態maをとる。
   alternation hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all wama
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:241 asserts checked
3. After verbs with negative meanings, the connective 'doing...' is expressed by no instead of wa.
   否定の意味の動詞の後では「〜して」は wa ではなく no という形式で表される。
   distribution hokkaido generic wano
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:174 asserts checked
4. The particle wa 'and / -ing' alternates to ma after the consonant n.
   wa「て」は n の後で ma に交替する。
   alternation ainu all wama
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:306 asserts checked
5. pa is an allomorph or variant of the conjunctive particle wa 'and then / doing...'.
   pa は接続助詞 wa「〜て」の異形である。
   alternation pawa
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:371 asserts checked

Disambiguation 2 claims ·6 sentences

How are homophonous forms of this particle distinguished based on position and syntactic host?

1. When the predicate of a clause conjunctionalized with wa is the copula ne, it functions together with wa as an emphatic definition of the subject (or occasionally the object) of the final predicate.
   接続文化された節の述語が係辞neである場合、waとともに機能して、最終述語の主語（またはときに目的語）の強調的な限定を形成する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ne wanewa
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:241 asserts checked
2. The ne wa emphatic definition construction is very common with numerical expressions.
   数詞表現を伴う場合、このne wa構文は非常に一般的である。
   frequency hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ne wa
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:241 asserts checked