111. The Perfective/Anterior Particle a (a, a…a, aan)

Form, etymology, and the number alternation 15 claims ·10 sentences· 2 examples

What are the singular and plural forms of the auxiliary that marks completion, and from which verb are they derived?

1. The perfect auxiliary verb is a for singular subjects and rok for plural subjects.
   完了のアスペクト補助動詞は単数主語に対して a、複数主語に対して rok である。
   paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest all arok
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:492–493 asserts checked
2. a (plural rok) is originally a verb meaning 'to sit', which became grammaticalized into a particle used to state an action as settled or definite, and therefore often indicates completion or past tense.
   a（複数形 rok）は本来「坐っている」という意味の動詞であり、助詞化して動作を確定したものとして述べるのに用いられ、多くは動作の完了または過去を示す。
   form-function all arok
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
3. The continuous aspect construction ...-a...-a is also originally this same element a.
   持続態の ...-a...-a も本来はこの a である。
   diachrony all -a...-a
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
4. The initial a- in particles such as achiki, aike, aine, akusu, and awa is a proclitically combined with other particles, which explains why they attach only to predicates.
   achiki, aike, aine, akusu, awa などの諸助詞における語頭の a- は、本条の a が proclitic に他の助詞と結合したものであり、それらが用言にのみつく理由もここにある。
   diachrony all a-achikiaikeaineakusuawa
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
5. In elder speech, 'an expresses completion, but it is used only in adnominal form.
   老人の言葉において 'an は完了を表すが、連体形でしか使われない。
   distribution sakhalin generic 'an
   asserts murasaki2025
   • murasaki2025:37 asserts checked
6. Unlike rusuy, the anterior/perfective auxiliary particle a never incorporates into the preceding verb stem to host personal affixes (e.g. *ek-a=an is ungrammatical).
   rusuy と異なり、「過去に終了したこと」を表す助動詞 a は動詞の一部となることはなく、*ek-a=an のように人称接辞を後続させることはできない。
   absence ainu all a
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:294 asserts checked
7. The auxiliary a : rok can be etymologically considered a grammaticalized form of the intransitive verb a : rok ('to sit').
   助動詞 a:rok は、語源的には自動詞 a:rok「座る」が文法化して助動詞となったものと考えられる。
   diachrony hokkaido/southwest/saru generic arok
   proposes nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:306 proposes checked
8. When p is used as a conjunctional particle, it is frequently preceded by the auxiliary a, with the entire sequence a p functioning as a connecting phrase.
   p が接続詞的用法で用いられる際、直前に助動詞 a を伴うことが多く、ap 全体が接続句としての役割を果たすことが多い。
   distribution ainu usually paa p
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:516 asserts checked
9. Except in interrogative sentences, the auxiliary verb a does not appear at the end of a sentence and is always followed either by the sentence-final particle wa or by a nominal form.
   助動詞 a は疑問文を除いて文末には現れず、必ず後ろに終助詞 wa が来るか、名詞的形式が来る。
   distribution all awa
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:79 asserts anchored
10. The auxiliary a can occur before conjunctions and nouns, but in most cases it is followed by a sentence-final particle such as wa.
    助動詞 a は接続助詞や名詞の前に立つこともあるが、後に wa「よ」のような終助詞を取る例がほとんどである。
    distribution hokkaido usually awa
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:188 asserts checked
11. In ordinary declarative clauses, a sentence almost never ends with the auxiliary a alone, but a can occur sentence-finally in interrogative sentences.
    普通の文で a だけで文が終わることはまずないが、疑問文では a が文末に用いられることがある。
    distribution hokkaido generic a
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:188 asserts checked
12. Under normal circumstances, the auxiliary verb a cannot precede the conjunctive particle kor.
    通常、接続助詞 kor の前に助動詞 a が立つことはない。
    absence ainu all akor
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:334 asserts checked
13. Ainu marks the perfective aspect using the auxiliary-type markers a for singular subjects and rok for plural subjects, derived from verbs meaning 'to sit'.
    アイヌ語は「座る」を原義とする単数主語用のaおよび複数主語用のrokを用いて完了アスペクトを表示する。
    form-function ainu arok
    asserts shibatani1990
    • shibatani1990 asserts checked
14. The auxiliary verb a in Ainu is a grammaticalized form of the intransitive verb a 'to sit' and has commonly been analyzed in previous research as expressing past or perfect.
    アイヌ語の補助動詞 a は自動詞 a「座る」が文法化した形式であり、先行研究では過去、特に完了を表すと一般に見なされてきた。
    diachrony ainu a
    reports yoshikawa2022
    • yoshikawa2022:19.1 reports checked
15. Plural forms rok-oka (Saru, Chitose) and rok-okay (Chitose, Horobetsu) reflect the plural rok of the verb a and the plural oka(y) of the verb an.
    複数形 rok-oka（沙流、千歳）および rok-okay（千歳、幌別）は、動詞 a の複数形 rok と動詞 an の複数形 oka(y) をそれぞれ反映している。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitosehokkaido/southwest/horobetsu all rok-okarok-okayrokaokaokay
    asserts yoshikawa2022
    • yoshikawa2022:19.4 asserts checked

Five competing analyses of a 12 claims ·15 sentences

What readings does the particle a have, and what are the competing analyses of its function?

1. The auxiliary a (plural rok) functions as a marker of relative past tense, indicating an action that precedes an action in the present.
   助動詞 a（複数形 rok）は、現在の動作に先行する動作を示す相対過去の標識として機能する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru arok
   reports refsing1986
   • refsing1986:192 reports checked
   • refsing1986:192 reports checked
2. The auxiliary verb a denotes only actional perfect and does not co-occur with negative forms of verbs, which instead require a stative perfect pair-verb construction.
   補助動詞 a は「動作完了」のみを表すため、動詞の否定形とは共起せず、否定形はペア動詞構文で表される「状態完了」を必要とする。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest all arok
   reports bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:492–493 reports checked
3. Refsing analyzes the particle a as expressing durative mode of action (Aktionsart), whereas Kindaichi treats it as expressing perfective aspect.
   金田一が a を完了態（パーフェクト）として扱うのに対し、レフシングはこれを持続的な動作様態（アクツィオンスアルト）と解釈する。
   analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic a
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:32 asserts checked
4. In the Shizunai dialect data, occurrences of auxiliary a are very few and are best interpreted as expressing the durative mode of action.
   静内方言のデータにおける補助動詞 a の例はごく少数であり、継続の様態を表すものとして解釈するのが最も適切である。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic a
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:192 asserts checked
5. The auxiliary marker a does not simply express past tense, but indicates whether an action has already occurred or not yet occurred in close relation to the present moment.
   a は単純な過去の意味だけを表すのではなく、ある行為がすでに行われたかまだ行われていないのかを現在時点との密接な関連において表す。
   form-function ainu generic a
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:78 asserts checked
6. The auxiliary a explicitly indicates past and perfective meaning, often conveying that a past event has some effect on the present.
   助動詞 a は過去の意味を明示し、多くの場合、過去に起こった出来事がなんらかの点で現在に影響を与えているという完了的な意味を含む。
   form-function hokkaido usually a
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:187 asserts checked
7. Unlike wa an, which does not combine with action verbs lacking a direct result, the auxiliary a can attach both to change-of-state verbs implying a direct result (such as us 'wear') and to action verbs without direct results (such as e 'eat' and hawean 'say').
   直接的な結果を含意しない動作動詞と結びつかない wa an と異なり、助動詞 a は us「履く」のような直接的な結果を含意する状態変化動詞にも、e「食べる」や hawean「言う」のような直接的な結果を含意しない動作動詞にも付くことができる。
   distribution hokkaido all awa an
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:187 asserts extracted
8. To express the completion ('has already done') of an action verb like 'ipe', the auxiliary 'a' is used rather than 'wa an'.
   ipe「食事する」のような動作動詞について，動作を既にし終えているという完了の意味を表すには wa an ではなく過去・完了の助動詞 a を用いる。
   form-function all awa anipe
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:198 asserts checked
9. The morpheme a functions as an auxiliary verb expressing past or perfective.
   a は過去・完了を表す助動詞である。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru generic a
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:292 asserts checked
10. The auxiliary verb a is proposed to have the aspectual meaning of perfective, expressing a situation that is complete and disconnected from the present time of speech.
    補助動詞 a のアスペクト的意味は完了相（perfective）であり、発話時の現在から切り離された完結した事態を表すと提案される。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose generic a
    proposes yoshikawa2022
    • yoshikawa2022:19.4 proposes checked
11. The auxiliary verb a can mark direct evidentiality, strengthening the certainty of the situation and making a contrast with the following clause stand out even in temporally unaffected statements.
    補助動詞 a は直接証拠性を標示し得、当該事態の確信度を強めて後続文との対比を際立たせる効果を持つ（時間の影響を受けない記述においても用いられる）。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose generic a
    proposes yoshikawa2022
    • yoshikawa2022:19.4 proposes anchored
12. As an extension of its meaning, the auxiliary verb a denotes certainty or recall of a past situation.
    助動詞aは意味の拡張として、過去の事態の確信性や想起を表す。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose generic a
    asserts yoshikawa2022
    • yoshikawa2022:19.5 asserts checked

Scene-shift in narrative 2 claims ·3 sentences

How does the particle a function in narrative to signal scene shifts, and what patterns are used?

1. In Saru Ainu, the auxiliary a (plural rok) is used to indicate that an event had already occurred prior to a reference point, often presenting it as a contrasting background situation for subsequent events.
   沙流方言において、助動詞 a（複数形 rok）はあることが起きた時点でその前にすでに行われていたことを表し、その後に起きたことと対比して背景となる出来事を示す際に用いられる。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru generic arok
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:306 asserts checked
2. In narratives, when a appears at the end of a sentence with the formal noun p or the conjunctive particles korka or wa, it tends to mark a change of scene, topic, or actor in the story.
   物語において、a が形式名詞 p や接続助詞 korka、wa を伴って文末に現れる場合、場面、話題、あるいは登場人物が転換する境界となる傾向がある。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose usually apkorkawa
   asserts yoshikawa2022
   • yoshikawa2022:19.4 asserts extracted

Iterative reduplication: the ~a ~a / ~rok ~rok pattern 8 claims ·6 sentences· 1 examples

What does reduplication of the verb-plus-auxiliary unit, as in V a V a, express?

1. The single auxiliary a in the Shizunai dialect is best interpreted as expressing a weaker durative mode of action, whereas repeating the verb with a both times expresses duration with overtones of impatience.
   静内方言における単独の助動詞 a は弱めの継続的様態（Aktionsart）を表すと解釈するのが最も適切であり、動詞を2回反復して両方の後に a を置く用法はいらだちのニュアンスを帯びた継続を表す。
   analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic a
   proposes refsing1986
   • refsing1986:192 proposes checked
2. The verb form followed by the durative particle a is usually repeated, which often implies a nuance of impatience on the part of the speaker.
   a を伴う動詞形は通常反復され、話者の側の焦燥感のニュアンスを含意することが多い。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually a
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:199 asserts checked
3. The repeated expression (verb) a (verb) a is often followed by the conjunctionalizer ayne to indicate that the long duration of something has finally ended and something else will follow.
   反復表現「(動詞) a (動詞) a」の後にはしばしば接続小辞 ayne が続き、何かの（過度に）長い継続がついに終わり、その後に別のことが続くことを示す。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually aayne
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:199 asserts checked
4. When (verb) a (verb) a is followed by ayne, the final a is sometimes dropped.
   「(動詞) a (動詞) a」の後に ayne が続く場合、最後の a は脱落することがある。
   alternation hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic aayne
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:199 asserts checked
5. When (verb) a (verb) a is used with a verb of instantaneous, momentary, or resultative content, a denotes the repetition of an act (iterative mode of action).
   瞬間的、一時的、または結果的な意味内容を持つ動詞（意味論的理由により継続し得ない動詞）とともに (動詞) a (動詞) a が用いられる場合、a は行為の反復（反復様態）を表す。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic a
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:199 asserts checked
6. The particle a is usually an auxiliary verb indicating past tense, but when used reduplicated (a ... a), it expresses continuous action ('keep on doing').
   a は通常は過去を意味する助動詞であるが、重複して使うと「ずっと〜し続ける」という意味を表す。
   form-function hokkaido generic a
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:61 asserts checked
7. When a verb phrase marked by what appears to be the auxiliary verb a is reduplicated as a... a..., it expresses continuous action ('keep on doing', 'do intensely/recklessly').
   助動詞 a と同じ形式が付いた動詞句が重複される（a... a...）と、「ずっとし続ける」「〜しまくる」のような意味を表す。
   form-function generic a... a...
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:79 asserts checked
8. When a form with the particle a is reduplicated, it means 'to keep on doing...', and in that construction the conjunctive particle kor can attach to it.
   a の付いた形式を反復すると「〜し続ける」という意味になり、これには kor が付く。
   form-function ainu generic akor
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:334 asserts checked

nisa: the recent-perfect companion 3 sentences

What does the auxiliary nisa mark, and how does it differ from a in number and meaning?

The admirative aan and rok(o)ka 0 sentences

What does the auxiliary aan express, and what is its relation to a?

Form, etymology, and dialect variants 4 claims ·5 sentences

What are the singular and plural forms of the auxiliary aan, and how is it etymologically composed?

1. The auxiliary verb a-an is composed of the auxiliary verb a plus the existential verb an, and has been considered to express surprise or admiration.
   補助動詞 a-an は補助動詞 a と存在動詞 an から構成されると考えられており、驚きや感嘆を表すために用いられると見なされてきた。
   analysis ainu a-anaan
   reports yoshikawa2022
   • yoshikawa2022:19.1 reports checked
2. In the narratives of Chitose dialect speaker Nabe Shirasawa, the form aan is rare and anan is used almost exclusively.
   千歳方言の話者である白沢ナベの語りにおいては、aan という形式は稀であり、ほとんど専ら anan という形式が用いられる。
   variation hokkaido/chitose usually aananan
   reports yoshikawa2022
   • yoshikawa2022:19.4 reports checked
3. The auxiliary verb corresponding to aan appears as haw'an in the Shizunai dialect, awan in the Tokachi dialect, and awokay and awan in the Horobetsu dialect.
   aan に対応する補助動詞は、静内方言では haw'an、十勝方言では awan、幌別方言では awokay および awan として現れる。
   variation hokkaido/southwest/shizunaihokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/southwest/horobetsu generic aanhaw'anawanawokay
   asserts yoshikawa2022
   • yoshikawa2022:19.4 asserts checked
4. The dialectal forms anan, awan, and haw'an are phonological variants of aan, all having the underlying construction of verb a plus verb an.
   方言形式 anan、awan、haw'an は aan の音韻的変種であり、いずれも動詞 a ＋ 動詞 an という構成をもつと考えられる。
   analysis hokkaido all aanananawanhaw'anaan
   proposes yoshikawa2022
   • yoshikawa2022:19.4 proposes checked

Meaning: after-the-fact realization and indirect evidentiality 3 claims ·4 sentences· 3 examples

What core meaning does the auxiliary aan convey, especially regarding realization and surprise?

1. The auxiliary verb aan has uses expressing indirect evidentiality and mirativity (unexpectedness).
   助動詞 aan には間接証拠性および意外性を表す用法がある。
   form-function ainu generic aan
   reports hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 reports checked
2. The auxiliary verb aan is used to indirectly confirm a past event based on physical traces in front of one's eyes or hearsay, expressing indirect evidentiality and mirativity.
   補助動詞 aan は、目の前にある痕跡や伝聞から過去の事態を間接的に確認するために用いられ、間接証拠性とミラティビティを表す。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru generic aan
   asserts yoshikawa2022
   • yoshikawa2022:19.4 asserts checked
3. The auxiliary verb aan, which contains an, expresses perfect aspect, indicating an expansion of time spanning the past and the present.
   anを含む助動詞aanは、過去と現在にまたがる時間の広がりを示すパーフェクト（完了）を表す。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose generic aanan
   asserts yoshikawa2022
   • yoshikawa2022:19.5 asserts checked

The a / aan opposition: aspect, evidentiality, and the Classical Japanese parallel 2 claims ·6 sentences

How do a and aan contrast in aspect and evidentiality, and what parallel exists with Classical Japanese?

1. The auxiliary verbs a and aan form a systematic opposition of perfective versus perfect in aspect, and direct evidential versus indirect evidential in evidentiality.
   補助動詞 a と aan は、アスペクトにおいては「完了相（perfective）／パーフェクト（perfect）」、証拠性においては「直接証拠／間接証拠」の対立をなす。
   analysis hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose generic aaan
   asserts yoshikawa2022
   • yoshikawa2022:19.4 asserts checked
2. In terms of aspect, the auxiliary verb a expresses perfective aspect, whereas aan expresses perfect aspect.
   アスペクトの観点において、助動詞aは完了相を表し、aanはパーフェクトを表す。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose generic aaan
   asserts yoshikawa2022
   • yoshikawa2022:19.5 asserts checked

aan stacked with ruwe ne 1 claims ·4 sentences

What does the sequence aan followed by ruwe ne express in narrative, and how does it shift information territory?

1. The evidential form ruwe ne can follow the auxiliary verb aan.
   ruwe ne は助動詞 aan に後続することができる。
   distribution ainu exists aanruwe ne
   asserts hirosawa2026
   • hirosawa2026 asserts checked