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A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Knowledge base · Part XVIII — Information Structure, Sentence-Final Particles, and Minor Classes

146. Adverbs, Degree Words, and Comparison Strategies

How does the language express adverbial modification, degree, and comparison?

その言語は副詞的修飾、程度、比較をどのように表現するか？

The adverb word-class, the -no adverbializer, intensifiers, and the periphrastic encoding of comparison (Ainu has no dedicated comparative).

candidate topic from the first edition topic:discourse/adverbs-degree-comparison read this topic as text

69claims
196statements
15sources
4examples
7sections
62first-edition sentences

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Forms mentioned

akkari 7-no 4iyotta 4sonno 3iteki 3pirka 2pirka-no 2somo 2patek 2moyre 2tunas 2peka 2pak(no) 2poro 2koraci 2sino 1sonno menoko 1ikiya 1ikiya seta e=na 1ani patek 1patek ani 1moyre-no 1tunas-no 1-nu 1hanke 1tuyma 1ani 1tura(no) 1e- 1o- 1-ne 1-un 1he- 1ho- 1-asi 1h- 1herepasi 1erepasi 1ta 1wa 1

Claims

A claim is one proposition; under it stand the statements of each source, with the stance that source takes. Claims are grouped by a model from the extracted statements and carry that status until reviewed.

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·

The adverb class 10 claims ·12 sentences

What defines the adverb word class and how does it differ from prenominals?

  1. Adverbs in Ainu are generally derived or converted from other parts of speech such as nouns and verbs.
    アイヌ語の副詞は一般に名詞や動詞など他の品詞から派生または転成される。
    distribution ainu most
    asserts kindaichi1936, shibatani1990
  2. Adverbs form integral parts of sentences, serving to modify the predicate or the whole sentence.
    副詞は文の構成要素を成し、述語または文全体を修飾する。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  3. Adverbs of emotion and emphasis differ from interjections in being unable to stand as isolated expressions.
    感情および強調の副詞は、単独の表現として自立できない点で間投詞と異なる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  4. Adverbs in Ainu are divided into postpositional adverbs and adverbs according to whether they take personal affixes.
    アイヌ語の副詞は人称接辞をとるかとらないかで後置副詞と副詞に分けられる。
    analysis ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  5. Adverbs are independent words that modify verb phrases, verbs, and similar elements.
    副詞は動詞句、動詞などを修飾する自立語である。
    terminology generic
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. Adverbial phrases have an arity of 0 and can be added to a clause as many times as meaning permits.
    副詞句はアリティ0であり、意味が許す限り文にいくつでも加えることができる。
    distribution generic
    asserts nakagawa2024
  7. Even when derived from verbs, adverbs differ from verbs in that they do not take subject personal affixes and directly modify verbs and similar elements without connective particles.
    副詞は動詞から派生したものも多いが、主格人称接辞をとらず、接続助詞を介さずに動詞などを直接修飾する点で動詞と異なる。
    analysis generic
    asserts nakagawa2024
  8. An adverb alone can constitute an adverbial phrase.
    副詞は単独で副詞句を構成することができる。
    distribution ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  9. Conjunctions, interjections, and adverbs in Ainu are all free forms that can function as adverbial adjuncts and modify whole sentences.
    アイヌ語の接続詞、感動詞、副詞はいずれも、副詞的付加語として機能し文全体を修飾することができる自立形式である。
    membership ainu all
    asserts refsing1986
  10. Adverbs occur before the verbs they modify.
    副詞は修飾する動詞の前に現れる。
    ordering ainu all
    asserts shibatani1990

Lexical adverbs 18 claims ·9 sentences· 1 examples

What lexical adverbs exist and what functions do they serve?

  1. The phrasal expression kesto an kor is used idiomatically with the meaning 'every day'.
    kesto an kor という表現は慣用句として「毎日」という意味で用いられる。
    form-function ainu all kesto an kor
    asserts sato2008
  2. Nouns relating to time are often used as adverbs as they are.
    時に関する名詞は多くそのまま副詞に用いられる。
    distribution ainu usually
    asserts kindaichi1936
  3. The suffix -ne, which derives adjectives, also forms adverbs from nouns.
    形容詞を作る -ne は名詞から副詞をも作る。
    form-function ainu generic -ne
    asserts kindaichi1936
  4. The suffix -ko attaches to nouns to form adverbial expressions meaning 'together with'.
    接尾辞 -ko は名詞に付いて「〜と共に」を表す副詞的表現を作る。
    form-function ainu generic -ko
    asserts kindaichi1936
  5. Inherent adverbs, which are basic forms rather than derived or converted from other parts of speech, express time, manner, degree, conjecture, negation, and similar notions.
    本来型副詞は他の品詞からの派生形や転換形ではなく副詞が基本形であるもので、時間、様態、程度、推量、否定などを表す。
    form-function generic
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. Adverbs meaning 'was on the verge of doing X' or 'narrowly escaped danger' show dialectal variation, such as naani in Upper Saru, Chitose, Horobetsu, and Ishikari, naanihonko in Chitose, naanipakpe in Chitose and Horobetsu, and ya(a)ni in Middle and Lower Saru.
    「今にも〜するところだった」「あやうく〜しかけた」という副詞は方言差があり、沙流川上流・千歳・幌別・石狩などの naani、千歳の naanihonko、千歳・幌別の naanipakpe、沙流川中下流の ya(a)ni など様々な形で用いられる。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitosehokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/central/ishikari generic naaninaanihonkonaanipakpeyaniyaani
    asserts nakagawa2024
  7. The three adverbs eattukonnoan, sonno, and sorekuska function solely to emphasize the succeeding sentence or predicate while indicating the speaker's emotions towards it.
    eattukonnoan、sonno、sorekuska の3つの副詞は、後続する文や述語を強調しつつそれに対する話者の感情を表す働きだけを持つ。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all eattukonnoansonnosorekuska
    asserts refsing1986
  8. The adverb hene means 'incidentally'.
    副詞 hene は「ついでに」「ところで」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic hene
    asserts refsing1986
  9. While tane means 'now', tanepo means 'just now' or sometimes 'only now at last'.
    tane は「今」だが、tanepo は「たった今」という意味であり、「今ようやく」と訳せる場合もある。
    form-function ainu all tanetanepo
    asserts sato2008
  10. The temporal adverb tane expresses a relatively broad 'now' centered on the present moment, including the immediate past ('a little before now') and immediate future ('a little after now').
    tane は「今現在」を軸としつつも，「今より少し前」「今より少し後」を含めた比較的幅広い「今」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido generic tane
    asserts sato2008
  11. The adverb tane can be used when narrating past events as if they were occurring right before the speaker's eyes.
    tane は，過去の出来事を回想する文脈であっても，今目の前で起こっているかのように叙述する場合に用いられることがある。
    distribution hokkaido generic tane
    asserts sato2008
  12. The temporal adverb téwano is used synonymously with tane wano to mean 'from now on'.
    「今から」という意味では，tane wano と同様に téwano という表現も用いられる。
    form-function hokkaido generic téwanotane wano
    asserts sato2008
  13. The temporal adverb tap means 'now' or 'just now'.
    時間副詞 tap は「今，つい今しがた」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido generic tap
    asserts sato2008
  14. kuskeraypo can also appear in the form kusukeraypo.
    kuskeraypo は kusukeraypo という形のこともある。
    variation ainu generic kuskeraypokusukeraypo
    asserts sato2008
  15. The expression ene is largely synonymous with ene an ma.
    ene は ene an ma と言ってもあまり意味の違いはない。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/saru generic eneene an ma
    asserts sato2008
  16. ene an ma is an adverbial phrase meaning 'like this, in this way'.
    ene an ma は「このように」という意味の副詞句である。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru generic ene an ma
    asserts sato2008
  17. The word sonno can be used adverbially.
    sonno は副詞的に使われることがある。
    distribution generic sonno
    asserts sato2008
  18. Although teeta is an adverbial form meaning 'in the past', it can be used adnominally or like a compound element modifying nouns (as in teeta huci, teeta ekasi).
    teeta は「昔に」という副詞的な形式であるが、teeta huci, teeta ekasi のように連体修飾的あるいは合成語的に用いられることがある。
    distribution generic teeta
    asserts sato2008
sonno ku=pewre or ta ku=nu yukar ne ru-we ne
truly 1SG.S=be.young place LOC 1SG.A=hear epic COP track-POSS COP
‘Truly, it is the epic I heard when I was young.’
nakagawa2024:118 SAR

Deverbal adverbs: the -no adverbializer and bare conversion 4 claims ·9 sentences· 1 examples

How are adverbs derived from verbs using the -no suffix or bare conversion?

  1. Stative verbs (adjectives) are used as adverbs without formal modification, especially in classical or poetic registers.
    状態動詞（形容詞）は、特に雅語・古典アイヌ語において形態的変更なしにそのまま副詞として用いられる。
    distribution ainu most
    asserts shibatani1990, kindaichi1936
  2. Certain verbs such as rai 'to die' and hetopo 'to turn back' are used as adverbs without modification.
    rai「死ぬ」や hetopo「引返す」のような動詞はそのまま副詞として用いられる。
    distribution ainu exists raihetopo
    asserts kindaichi1936
  3. Some intransitive verbs such as tunas 'fast', moyre 'slowly', hanke 'near', and tuyma 'far' can be used adverbially without -no in their bare verb forms, functioning identically to forms with -no.
    tunas「早く」、moyre「ゆっくり」、hanke「近く」、tuyma「遠く」などの一部の自動詞は、-no を伴わずに自動詞の形のままで副詞的に使われ、-no を伴う形と全く同じように用いられる。
    distribution hokkaido generic tunastunasnomoyrehanketuyma
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. The stative verbs pirka and wen may be used adverbially without suffixing no.
    状態動詞 pirka と wen は no を付加することなく副詞的に用いられうる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai pirkawenno
    asserts refsing1986
tunas-no pirka
be.quick-ADV be.good
‘Get well quickly!’
shibatani1990:19 HK

Directional adverbs from locative roots 6 claims ·3 sentences

How are directional adverbs formed from locative roots?

  1. Location nouns take -ta and -un to form adverbs.
    所に関する名詞には -ta および -un「へ」を付けて副詞とする。
    distribution ainu generic -ta-un
    asserts kindaichi1936
  2. The directional suffix -na also forms adverbs.
    方向を示す -na も同様に副詞を作る。
    form-function ainu generic -na
    asserts kindaichi1936
  3. Directional adverbs are formed by prefixing e- ('head') or o- ('buttocks') to a type-2 locative noun, followed by the verb ne or un.
    動詞接頭辞 e-（頭）または o-（尻）に第二種位置名詞と動詞 ne または un を組み合わせることで、方向を表す一群の副詞が作られる。
    form-function hokkaido generic e-o-neun
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. Directional adverbs derived with e-/o- and -ne were originally verbs and are still frequently used as verbs.
    e- や o- に位置名詞と -ne が付いた方向副詞は本来動詞であったと見られ、特に -ne 型は現在でも実際に動詞としてよく使われる。
    diachrony hokkaido generic ekimne
    proposes nakagawa2024
  5. Directional adverbs are formed by prefixing he- ('head') or ho- ('buttocks') to a type-2 locative noun, followed by the verb asi 'stand sth up'.
    動詞接頭辞 he-（頭）または ho-（尻）に第二種位置名詞と動詞 asi「〜を立てる」を組み合わせることで、方向を表す一群の副詞が作られる。
    form-function hokkaido generic he-ho-asi
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. In contrast to hepasi 'downstream' and hopasi 'from downstream', the expression for 'upstream' has a different word structure, appearing as hepera (Saru, Chitose, Shizunai), heperay (Horobetsu, Shizunai), and eperay (Tokachi), and 'from upstream' as hopera (Saru, Chitose, Shizunai), hoperay (Horobetsu), and operay (Tokachi).
    hepasi「川下へ」・hopasi「川下から」に対し、「川上へ」は hepera（沙流・千歳・静内）、heperay（幌別・静内）、eperay（十勝）、「川上から」は hopera（沙流・千歳・静内）、hoperay（幌別）、operay（十勝）という異なる語構成をとる。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitosehokkaido/southwest/shizunaihokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/central/tokachi generic heperaheperayeperayhoperahoperayoperay
    asserts nakagawa2024

Postpositional adverbs 9 claims ·8 sentences

How do postpositional adverbs function and how are they distinguished from case postpositions?

  1. Some nouns relating to time take the particle -ta 'at' and are used as adverbs.
    時に関する名詞のあるものには -ta「に」を付けて副詞に用いる。
    distribution ainu exists -ta
    asserts kindaichi1936
  2. In addition to ordinary adverbs, Ainu has postpositional adverbs that take an antecedent or personal affixes.
    アイヌ語の副詞には、通常の副詞の他に、先行詞や人称接辞をとる後置副詞がある。
    existence ainu exists
    asserts nakagawa2024
  3. Conversion from transitive verbs into adverbs is more diverse and frequent than from intransitive verbs, and when functioning as adverbs they retain the ability to take an object and often function as postpositional adverbs.
    他動詞から副詞への品詞転換は自動詞からのものより種類が多く頻繁に用いられ、副詞として用いられる場合でも元の他動詞の目的語をとる機能を残して後置副詞として用いられることが多い。
    distribution hokkaido generic
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. Unlike Japanese case particles, postpositional adverbs derived from transitive verbs can also be used independently without an immediately preceding noun phrase, having an antecedent located elsewhere in the discourse.
    日本語の格助詞とは異なり、他動詞から品詞転換した後置副詞は先行する名詞句を伴わずに独立用法でも用いられ、離れた先行詞を受けることができる。
    distribution hokkaido generic ani
    asserts nakagawa2024
  5. While some postpositional adverbs converted from transitive verbs, such as tura, can also occur in a -no form (turano) with virtually identical meaning, many cannot take -no (for example, *ani-no is ungrammatical).
    他動詞から品詞転換した後置副詞の中には tura と turano のように -no 型でも同義で使われるものがあるが、多くは -no 型をとることができず、*ani-no などは容認されない。
    distribution hokkaido generic turaturanoani*ani-no
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. Horobetsu nepkor and Tokachi/Shizunai nepkon mean 'like', but because they are preceded basically by nouns and are postpositional adverbs, they are grammatically distinct from pekor.
    幌別方言の nepkor や十勝・静内方言の nepkon は「〜のように」と訳せるが、前に来るのは基本的に名詞であり、nepkor, nepkon 自体は後置副詞と考えられるので、文法的には pekor 等とは別のものである。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/southwest/shizunai all nepkornepkonpekor
    asserts nakagawa2024
  7. Case particles do not inflect, but some postpositional adverbs inflect by taking objective personal affixes, such as akkari taking en- to form en-akkari 'more than me'.
    格助詞は語形変化しないが、後置副詞の中には目的格人称接辞を取って語形変化をするものがある（例: akkari が一人称目的格接辞 en- を取って en-akkari「私よりも」となる）。
    alternation ainu exists akkarien-akkari
    asserts sato2008
  8. akkari is a postpositional adverb meaning 'more than, than'.
    akkari は「〜より」を意味する後置副詞である。
    form-function ainu all akkari
    asserts sato2008
  9. The clause-initial patek in patek a-kor pe may be regarded as a kind of independent post-adverb.
    patek a-kor pe における文頭の patek は、独立的な後置副詞の一種とみなすべきかもしれない。
    analysis example_only patek
    proposes sato2008

Degree and intensification 13 claims ·9 sentences· 1 examples

What strategies express degree and intensification?

  1. The auxiliary verb 'ekasure expresses excessive action or state ('to overdo', 'to be excessively...').
    助動詞 'ekasure は動作や状態の過度（「〜しすぎる」「あまりにも〜だ」）を表す。
    form-function sakhalin all 'ekasure
    asserts murasaki2025
  2. The diminutive suffix -po, the particle ka, the adverb sui, and the emphatic suffix -un frequently attach to adverbs to intensify their meaning.
    指小辞の -po、助詞の ka、副詞の sui、強勢の -un などはしばしば副詞に付いてその意味を強める。
    form-function ainu generic -pokasui-un
    asserts kindaichi1936
  3. The element kasui expresses excessive degree, meaning 'overly' or 'too much'.
    kasui は「……し過ぎる」という意味を表す。
    form-function kasui
    asserts kindaichi1936
  4. The element raike expresses excessive degree, meaning 'too much'.
    raike は「……しすぎる」という意味を表す。
    form-function raike
    asserts kindaichi1936
  5. The prefix or- serves as an intensive prefix.
    接頭辞 or- は強調（intensive）を表す。
    form-function or-
    asserts kindaichi1936
  6. The auxiliary verbs 'ekasre and ~ 'ekas express excessive degree ('too much, over-').
    助動詞 'ekasre および 〜 'ekas は《〜すぎる》を表す。
    form-function sakhalin generic 'ekasre'ekas
    asserts murasaki2025
  7. Postpositions and other words are often added to adverbs as adverbial intensifiers (副詞強調語) to intensify or augment their meaning.
    しばしば副詞に後置詞などを副詞強調語として添えて意味を強めたり意味を加えたりする。
    form-function sakhalin usually
    asserts murasaki2025
  8. Both ponno and poronno are frequently used adverbially.
    ponno と poronno はともに頻繁に副詞的に用いられる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually ponnoporonno
    asserts refsing1986
  9. The prefix ar- functions as an intensifier of degree meaning 'truly' or 'really'.
    接頭辞 ar- は「本当に」という意味で、程度を強める働きをする。
    form-function generic ar-
    asserts sato2008
  10. iyotta 'most' is morphologically analyzed as i-y-or-ta.
    iyotta「一番」は形態論的に i-y-or-ta と分析される。
    analysis generic iyottai-orta
    asserts sato2008
  11. The adverb arikinne expresses high degree ('very'), but can also be used with verbs of non-existence in the sense of 'completely'.
    arikinne は程度の強さを表す副詞であるが、非存在を意味する動詞と共に「完全に」という意味で使われることもある。
    form-function generic arikinne
    asserts sato2008
  12. The word po is an adverb meaning 'all the more, even more'.
    po は「なおさら，いっそう」という意味の副詞である。
    membership ainu generic po
    asserts sato2008
  13. The expression po anakne means 'all the more, even more', and appears to be used mainly in oral literature.
    po anakne も「なおさら，いっそう」という意味の表現であるが，主に口承文芸で用いられる言い方のようである。
    distribution ainu generic po anakne
    proposes sato2008
yaykata ka k=e hike, iyotta keraan wa
oneself also 1SG.A=eat but most be.delicious CONJ
‘I ate some myself too, but it was the most delicious —’
ilcaa1976 SAR Kawakami Matsuko, isoytak monologue 1 [aa-irc/003#86]

Comparison: the akkari strategy and the absence of a morphological comparative 9 claims ·12 sentences· 1 examples

How is comparison expressed in the absence of a dedicated comparative morpheme?

  1. The comparative relation or degree is not morphologically marked on the verb.
    比較の関係や程度は動詞において形態的に標示されない。
    absence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  2. Ainu has no overt parameter marker in its equative construction.
    アイヌ語の同等構文には、明示的な比較パラメータ標識（parameter marker）が存在しない。
    absence ainu none
    asserts bugaeva2015
  3. In the Ainu equative construction equivalent, the parameter usually functions as an attribute of the comparee while the main clause predicate is an 'exist' or isam 'not exist'.
    アイヌ語の同等比較構文相当表現において、パラメータは通常比較対象（comparee）の連体修飾語として機能し、主節述語にはan「存在する」またはisam「存在しない」が用いられる。
    form-function ainu usually anisam
    asserts bugaeva2015
  4. In the Ainu equative construction equivalent, the parameter may be implicit or semantically included in the meaning of the standard noun, such as nispa 'rich/wise man' or katkemat 'fine woman'.
    アイヌ語の同等比較構文相当表現では、パラメータは明示されず暗黙的であるか、あるいはnispa「富豪／賢人」やkatkemat「立派な女性」のように基準名詞の意味に意味論的に含まれることがある。
    distribution ainu exists nispakatkemat
    asserts bugaeva2015
  5. The comparative ('than') case is expressed by kasuno and akkari.
    「より」の格は kasuno および akkari によって表される。
    form-function kasunoakkari
    asserts kindaichi1936
  6. The particles neno, nepkor, nepekor, shinne, kunne, and korachi all mean 'like, as'.
    助詞 neno, nepkor, nepekor, shinne, kunne, korachi はすべて「の如く」を意味する。
    form-function all nenonepkornepekorshinnekunnekorachi
    asserts kindaichi1936
  7. The postposition akkari 'than' marks the standard of comparison in an unequal comparison, and originates in a transitive verb meaning 'overtake/pass'.
    後置詞 akkari「〜より」は不等の比較において比較の基準を表示し、本来は「追い抜く／通り過ぎる」を意味する他動詞に由来する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic akkari
    asserts refsing1986
  8. The postposition koraci 'like' is used for comparisons of equality, marking the element that is similar to something else.
    後置詞 koraci「〜のように」は同等の比較に用いられ、他と類似している要素を表示する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic koraci
    asserts refsing1986
  9. In comparative constructions, the order is standard + marker + adjective/stative verb.
    比較構文において、基準＋標識＋形容詞／状態動詞の順序をとる。
    ordering ainu generic
    asserts shibatani1990
tan cep en=akkari poro
this fish 1SG.O=more.than be.big
‘This fish is bigger than me.’
constructed