50. Demonstratives, Anaphora, and Definiteness

Overview: a bipartite deixis system 14 claims ·9 sentences

How does Hokkaido Ainu divide demonstratives into two sets—one for pointing at scene-present referents and one for tracking discourse referents?

1. In Shizunai Ainu, all pronominal noun groups except personal pronouns have adverbial forms.
   静内方言において、人称代名詞を除くすべての代名名詞のグループには副詞形が存在する。
   existence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
2. In Shizunai Ainu, demonstratives based on the roots ta and to primarily function as a deictic category indicating location in time and space relative to speech act participants, though they can also have anaphoric reference.
   静内方言において、語根 ta および to に基づく指示詞は照応指示も持ちうるが、基本的には発話参加者を基準とした時空間の位置を示す直示範疇として機能する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all tato
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
3. In Shizunai Ainu, demonstrative roots are definite and distinguish two degrees of proximity to the speaker: proximal ta and distal to.
   静内方言において、指示詞語根は特定（定）であり、話者に対する近称 ta と遠称 to の2段階の近接度を区別する。
   paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all tato
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
4. In Shizunai Ainu, corresponding to the proximal and distal demonstrative roots ta and to, there is an indeterminate root ne used in interrogative and indefinite expressions.
   静内方言において、近称・遠称の指示詞語根 ta および to に対応して、疑問表現や不定表現に用いられる不定語根 ne が存在する。
   existence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all netato
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
5. Adnominals primarily function as prenominal modifiers of nouns and cannot serve as predicates.
   連体詞は、名詞の前におかれて名詞の修飾語になることがおもな役割となるもので、述語にはならない。
   distribution ainu all
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:283 asserts checked
6. Ainu demonstrative adnominals are strictly differentiated between spatial/situational deictic forms (tan, taan, toan, toon) and textual/anaphoric forms (ne, nea, newaan).
   アイヌ語の指示連体詞は、現場指示には tan, taan, toan, toon などが、文脈指示には ne, nea, newaan などが使われ、使い分けられている。
   form-function ainu generic tantaantoantoonnenea
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:284 asserts checked
7. The demonstrative tapan 'this' etymologically derives from the verb tap 'in this way' and an 'to exist', and is originally a verb.
   tapan は「この」という意味で連体詞としても用いられるが、語源は tap「このように」an「ある」ということで本来動詞である。
   diachrony ainu all tapantapan
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:401 asserts checked
8. Demonstratives and indeterminates possess a basic free form that alone generally functions as an adverbial adjunct.
   指示詞および不定詞には基本的な自立形式があり、それ単独で一般に連用修飾語として機能する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:45 asserts checked
9. Combining the basic form of demonstratives and indeterminates with a suffix (-an, -on, -un, -oka) produces an adnoun, which is a bound form.
   指示詞および不定詞の基本形に接尾辞（-an、-on、-un、-oka）を付加すると連体詞が形成され、これは結合形式である。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all -an-on-un-oka
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:45 asserts checked
10. Apart from the indefinites, anaphorics, demonstratives, and interrogatives all have adnominal forms that belong to the subclass of adnouns under clitics.
    不定詞を除き、前照応詞、指示詞、疑問詞はいずれも接語類の下位区分である連体詞に属する連体形をもつ。
    membership hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:75 asserts checked
11. All pronominal nouns except the anaphorics have adverbial forms that fall under nominals in the subclass of Conjunctions, Interjections, and Adverbs.
    前照応詞以外のすべての代名名詞は、名詞類の下位区分である「接続詞、感動詞、副詞」に属する副詞形をもつ。
    membership hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:75 asserts checked
12. The demonstrative adverbs of manner are proximal taa and distal too.
    指示様態副詞は近称の taa と遠称の too である。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all taatoo
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986 asserts checked
13. The double vowels /aa/ and /oo/ in demonstratives are often shortened to single vowels in rapid speech.
    指示詞における二重母音 /aa/ と /oo/ は早口の談話においてしばしば単母音に短縮される。
    alternation hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually aaoo
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986 asserts checked
14. tap alone is never used as a subject or an object, and thus must be regarded as a form with low independence.
    tap 単独で主語や目的語になる例はないので、tap は独立性の低い形式とみなさなければならない。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/saru none tap
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:302 asserts checked

Deictic prenominals 31 claims ·7 sentences· 2 examples

What are the deictic prenominal forms in Hokkaido Ainu, including their etymology and variant shapes?

1. The basic adnominal demonstrative forms are proximal taan and distal toon in the Shizunai dialect.
   静内方言において、連体指示詞の基本形式は近称の taan と遠称の toon である。
   paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai universal taantoon
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
2. The demonstrative root ta forms part of fixed temporal idioms such as tap or tane ('now'), tanto ('today'), and tanpa ('this year').
   指示語根 ta は、tap や tane（「今」）、tanto（「今日」）、tanpa（「今年」）などの固定的な時間慣用句の一部を構成する。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential tataptanetantotanpa
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
3. The deictic adnouns in Shizunai Ainu include taan, toon, and tooka.
   静内アイヌ語の直示的連体詞には、taan、toon、tooka がある。
   membership hokkaido/southwest/shizunai universal taantoontooka
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:155 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:155 asserts checked
   • refines: The basic adnominal demonstrative forms are proximal taan and distal toon in the Shizunai dialect.— Includes plural tooka alongside singular taan and toon.
4. Vocative phrases in Ainu may contain demonstratives as modifiers, specifically proximal tan and taan, and occasionally medial toan.
   アイヌ語の呼格句は修飾語として指示詞を伴うことがあり、具体的には近称のtanおよびtaan、そして時には中称のtoanが含まれうる。
   distribution ainu generic tantaantoan
   asserts bugaeva2008
   • bugaeva2008 asserts checked
5. The distal demonstrative toon lacks the usage of modifying vocative phrases.
   遠称指示詞toonには呼格句を修飾する用法がない。
   absence ainu none toon
   asserts bugaeva2008
   • bugaeva2008 asserts checked
6. Vocative phrases modified by demonstratives represent a less polite form of address used to refer to an addressee with a lower social status than that of the speaker.
   指示詞によって修飾された呼格句は、話し手よりも低い社会的地位にある聞き手を指すために用いられる、よりぞんざいな呼称形式である。
   form-function ainu generic
   proposes bugaeva2008
   • bugaeva2008 proposes checked
7. In semi-direct reported discourse, there is no deictic shift in spatial expressions such as locative adverbs or demonstratives.
   半直接話法において、場所副詞や指示詞などの空間直示表現のシフトは生じない。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest none
   asserts bugaeva2008
   • bugaeva2008 asserts checked
8. Ainu determiners occur only in prenominal position and cannot form a complete noun phrase on their own.
   アイヌ語の連体詞（限定詞）は名詞前位置にのみ生起し、単独で完全な名詞句を構成することはできない。
   distribution ainu all tantu
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:470–471 asserts checked
9. The demonstrative tan (emphatic tapan) expresses something that is present, visible, is the new topic of conversation, or is located where the conversation takes place ('this, here').
   指示詞 tan（強調形 tapan）は、現前に存在して目に見えるもの、会話の新しいトピック、または会話が行われている場所に位置するものを表す（「これ、ここ」）。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest all tantapan
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:472–473 asserts checked
10. The demonstrative taan expresses something in the immediate vicinity of the speaker ('this, here').
    指示詞 taan は、話し手の直近にあるものを表す（「これ、ここ」）。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest all taan
    asserts bugaeva2012
    • bugaeva2012:472–473 asserts checked
11. The demonstrative toan expresses something separated from oneself ('that, there').
    指示詞 toan は、自分から離れているものを表す（「あれ、そこ／あそこ」）。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest all toan
    asserts bugaeva2012
    • bugaeva2012:472–473 asserts checked
12. Demonstrative adjectives are formed by suffixing the existential verb an 'to be' (plural okai) to the medial and distal demonstrative pronouns, while the proximal adjective tan derives from the medial base ta-án.
    指示形容詞は中称および遠称の指示代名詞に動詞 an「ある」（複数では okai）が添えられて形成され、近称形容詞には中称からできた tan（ta-án 由来）が代用される。
    existence ainu all tantanókaitáantáokaitoántonókai
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
13. Medial demonstrative adjectives with tá- are rarely used, but when used, their accent falls on ta (táan), strictly distinguishing them by pitch from the emphatic proximal demonstrative adjective taán.
    中称指示形容詞はあまり用いられないが、用いられる場合は ta にアクセントがあり（táan）、アクセントによって強調の近称指示形容詞 taán と厳重に区別される。
    distribution ainu all táantaán
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
14. Proximal demonstrative adjectives also occur as tapan 'this' and tapokai 'these', derived from the adverb tap 'now'.
    近称指示形容詞には副詞 tap「今」に由来する tap-an「この」、tap-okai「これらの」という形も存在する。
    existence ainu all tapantapokaitap
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
15. The demonstrative adjectives tan and tapan have developed an intensive meaning 'very / so' from an accompanying deictic gesture implying 'this much'.
    指示形容詞 tan や tapan は「こんなに」と身振りで指し示すニュアンスから、「非常に、ひどく」という強意の意味を発達させている。
    form-function ainu all tantapan
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
16. The adnominal demonstratives distinguish singular and plural: proximal tan / tanoka(y), distal tara / taranoka(y), emphatic distal ta'a(a)n / ta'anoka(y), polite contextual anaphora ne'an / ne'okay, and contextual anaphora neya / neeroh.
    指示連体詞には単数と複数の区別があり、近称 tan / tanoka(y)、遠称 tara / taranoka(y)、遠称（強調） ta'a(a)n / ta'anoka(y)、文脈指示（丁寧） ne'an / ne'okay、文脈指示 neya / neeroh がある。
    paradigm-cell sakhalin all tantanoka(y)tarataranoka(y)ta'a(a)nta'anoka(y)
    asserts murasaki2025
    • murasaki2025:11 asserts checked
17. tanoka(y) is a demonstrative meaning 'these'.
    tanoka(y) は「これらの」を表す指示詞である。
    form-function sakhalin tanoka(y)
    asserts murasaki2025
    • murasaki2025:68 asserts checked
18. Adnominals precede and modify nouns, and they comprise demonstrative adnominals and numeral adnominals.
    連体詞は名詞の前に来て名詞を修飾する語であり、指示連体詞と数連体詞（数詞）がある。
    analysis sakhalin all
    asserts murasaki2025
    • murasaki2025:101 asserts checked
19. Compound demonstrative adnominals can be formed in combination with 'an or 'okay, such as nah'an, nah'oka, 'ene'an, and 'ene'oka.
    'an/'okay と連語になった指示連体詞として、nah'an, nah'oka, 'ene'an, 'ene'oka などがある。
    existence sakhalin nah'annah'oka'ene'an'ene'oka
    asserts murasaki2025
    • murasaki2025:101 asserts checked
20. The adnominal tanan 'this' is virtually restricted to fixed expressions such as tanan to 'today' or tanan aynu 'this person', and is used almost exclusively in verse.
    tan と同様に「この」を意味する連体詞 tanan は、tanan to「今日」や tanan aynu「この人間」といった用例にほぼ限られ、もっぱら韻文で使われる。
    distribution ainu usually tanantanan totanan aynu
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:284 asserts checked
21. The demonstrative tapan : tapoka(y) means 'this', accompanied by an emphatic nuance.
    「この」という意味の tapan : tapoka(y) は、tan と同義で強調のニュアンスを伴う。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose generic tapantapokatapokay
    reports nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:284 reports checked
22. The adnominal demonstrative toanúka means 'those (plural)', whereas toan is its singular form meaning 'that'.
    toanúka は「あれら」という複数の意味の指示連体詞であり、単数の「あれ」という意味の場合は toan という形である。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido generic toanúkatoan
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:60 asserts extracted
23. The expressions taan kur and tan kur (literally 'this person') can be used idiomatically as a second-person honorific expression addressed by a wife to her husband.
    taan kur（または tan kur, 文字通りの意味は「この人」）という表現は、慣用句的に妻が夫に対して用いる尊敬表現として使われることがある。
    form-function hokkaido exists taan kurtan kur
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:216 asserts checked
24. When taan kur or tan kur is used by a wife to address her husband, the predicate verb either agrees in the third person or takes a second-person honorific personal affix.
    taan kur (tan kur) が妻から夫への呼びかけとして用いられる場合、動詞は名詞句に一致して三人称になる場合と、二人称敬称人称接辞が用いられる場合とがある。
    distribution hokkaido generic taan kurtan kur
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:216 asserts checked
25. Unlike Japanese 'anata', the second-person usage of taan kur and tan kur can only be used toward one's husband.
    日本語の「あなた」とは異なり、アイヌ語の taan kur, tan kur は聞き手を指す用法としては夫に対してしか使えない。
    distribution hokkaido all taan kurtan kur
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:216 asserts checked
26. Both tan and taan are adnominal demonstratives referring to things close to the speaker, but tan has a nuance of being closer to the speaker ('right beside') than taan.
    tan も taan も話し手に近いものを指す指示連体詞であるが、tan のほうが taan よりももっと話し手に近く、「すぐそば」のようなニュアンスがある。
    form-function hokkaido generic tantaan
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:217 asserts checked
27. The demonstrative toan is used for entities distant from both the speaker and the hearer.
    toan は話し手、聞き手いずれからも離れたものに対して用いられる。
    form-function hokkaido generic toan
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:217 asserts checked
28. To refer to an entity near the hearer, either taan or toan is used depending on whether the speaker perceives it as close or far.
    聞き手の側にあるものを指す場合、話し手が近いととらえているか遠いととらえているかによって、taan, toan いずれも使う。
    distribution hokkaido generic taantoan
    proposes sato2008
    • sato2008:218 proposes extracted
29. The plural forms of taan and toan are taanúka and toanúka, respectively, and when followed by pe 'thing' they become taanúkay pe and toanúkay pe.
    taan の複数形は taanúka、toan の複数形は toanúka であり、pe「もの」が後ろに来た場合はそれぞれ taanúkay pe, toanúkay pe という形になる。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido all taanúkatoanúkataanúkay petoanúkay pe
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:218 asserts checked
30. Although speakers have uttered tanuka when asked about a plural form of tan, no actual attested examples of tanuka in context have been found so far.
    tan の複数形として tanuka という形があるかという問いに対して話し手は tanuka という形を口にしてはいるが、実際の文脈で使われた用例はこれまでのところない。
    absence hokkaido none tanuka
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:218 asserts checked
31. A demonstrative precedes the noun it modifies in Ainu.
    アイヌ語において指示詞は修飾される名詞に先行する。
    ordering ainu generic
    asserts shibatani1990
    • shibatani1990:24 asserts checked

Anaphoric and recognitional demonstratives 27 claims ·12 sentences· 1 examples

How do the anaphoric prenominals ne, nea, and newaan function, and why are they not used for pointing?

1. The root ne appears in expressions of anaphoric reference meaning 'the aforementioned thing or way' or 'the said matter or way'.
   語根 ne は「前述の物・方法」あるいは「当該の事柄・やり方」という意味で照応表現に現れる。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential ne
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:95 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:95 asserts checked
2. The root ne forms part of nean pe ('the aforementioned thing') and can also be used adverbially either by itself or reinforced by koraci to mean 'in this or the aforementioned way'.
   語根 ne は nean pe（「前述の物」）の一部を構成し、また単独で副詞的にも、あるいは koraci を伴って「このように／前述のように」という意味で用いられる。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential nenean pekoraci
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:95 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:95 asserts checked
   • refines: The root ne appears in expressions of anaphoric reference meaning 'the aforementioned thing or way' or 'the said matter or way'.— Elaborates specific syntactic contexts and combinations of anaphoric ne.
3. The manner adverb ene functions anaphorically and is probably derived from the demonstrative root ne.
   様態副詞 ene は照応的に機能し、おそらく指示語根 ne に由来する。
   diachrony hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential enene
   proposes refsing1986
   • refsing1986 proposes checked
   • refsing1986 proposes checked
4. The distal demonstrative derivative too can function as an anaphoric genitive adnoun referring back to an antecedent adjunct that serves as the possessor or attributive modifier of a new noun.
   遠称指示詞に由来する too は照応的属格連体詞として機能し、新たな名詞の所有者や連体修飾語となる先行文の付加詞を指し示す。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential tooto
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
5. The forms nean, neoka, ne, nee, nehe, and too function as anaphoric adnouns in Shizunai Ainu.
   静内アイヌ語において、nean、neoka、ne、nee、nehe、too という形式は前方照応的連体詞として機能する。
   membership hokkaido/southwest/shizunai universal neanneokaneneenehetoo
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:155 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:155 asserts checked
6. Nominal demonstratives are not used for an anaphoric or cataphoric function.
   名詞的指示詞は前方照応や後方照応の機能には用いられない。
   absence hokkaido/southwest none
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:472–473 asserts checked
7. The anaphoric demonstrative ne 'this' (< copula ne) precedes the noun referring to the person or thing being discussed at present.
   照応指示詞 ne「これ」（< 繋辞 ne）は、現在話題に上っている人や物を指す名詞の前に置かれる。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest all ne
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:472–473 asserts checked
8. The forms ne wa an (singular) and ne wa oka (plural) mean 'just exactly that'.
   ne wa an（単数）および ne wa oka（複数）は「ちょうどその、まさにその」という意味を表す。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest all ne wa anne wa oka
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:472–473 asserts checked
9. The forms néa (singular) and nérok (plural) mean 'that' and remind the listener of someone or something that came up earlier in the conversation.
   néa（単数）および nérok（複数）は「あの／その」という意味で、会話で先ほど話題に上った人や物を聞き手に想起させる。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest all néanérok
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:472–473 asserts checked
10. The forms ikia (singular) and ikirok (plural) mean 'that' and refer to a person or animal that did something previously.
    ikia（単数）および ikirok（複数）は「あの／その」という意味で、以前に何かを行った人や動物を指す。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest all ikiaikirok
    reports bugaeva2012
    • bugaeva2012:472–473 reports checked
11. The demonstrative ne has no spatial directional pointing meaning, but functions like a definite article referring retrospectively to something previously mentioned.
    指示語 ne には空間を指し示す方向的な意味はなく、以前に言及されたものを回顧して指摘する定冠詞的な用法をもつ。
    form-function ainu all ne
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
12. The demonstrative ne is used for both singular and plural, but differentiated forms have also developed: né-a / né-an for singular and né-rok / né-okai for plural.
    ne は単複両用に用いられるが、単数形 né-a / né-an と複数形 né-rok / né-okai という区別された言い方も生じている。
    existence ainu all né-ané-anné-rokné-okai
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
13. Because ne cannot be nominalized directly, nominalized forms are built on its differentiated forms, such as néa-p / néan-pe (singular) and nérok-pe / néokai-pe (plural).
    ne は直接名詞化できないため、名詞化には néa-p / néan-pe（単数）や nérok-pe / néokai-pe（複数）などの形が用いられる。
    distribution ainu all néa-pnéan-penérok-penéokai-pe
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
14. -a (plural -rok) attached to modifiers (such as in ne-a / ne-rok) is originally this same element a.
    修飾語に付く -a（複数形 -rok）（ne-a や ne-rok など）も本来はこの a である。
    diachrony all -a-rokne-ane-rok
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
15. To refer to an aforementioned thing in discourse, newaanpe is used more frequently than neap.
    文脈上で出てきた「それ」「あれ」「例のもの」を指す場合には、neap よりも newaanpe のほうがより多く使われる。
    frequency hokkaido/southwest/saru usually neapnewaanpe
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:287 asserts checked
16. The combination of nea with the formal noun hi (nea hi) is not very frequently attested.
    形式名詞 hi と nea との組み合わせの用例はあまり多くない。
    frequency ainu usually nea hihi
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:288 asserts checked
17. In dialects that use ikia or nean, the fused pronominal forms ikiap and neanpe, respectively, are used to mean 'that thing / the aforementioned one'.
    ikia を使う地域では ikiap、nean を使う地域では neanpe という形で「例のもの、それ」を表す。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/samanihokkaido/southwest/shizunai all ikiapneanpe
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:288 asserts checked
18. The particle ne functions as an anaphoric demonstrative, which Chiri described as a word feeling similar to a definite article.
    助詞 ne は照応指示詞として機能し、知里はこれを「定冠詞的感じのする語」と定義した。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai ne
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:27 asserts checked
19. The root ne forms the proximal anaphoric adnouns ne, nee, and nehe ('this...').
    語根 ne は近称の照応連体詞 ne, nee, nehe（「この…」）を形成する。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic neneenehe
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986 asserts checked
20. The root ne forms the anaphoric adnouns nean (singular) and neoka (plural), meaning 'that/those...'.
    語根 ne は照応連体詞 nean（単数）および neoka（複数）（「その／それらの…」）を形成する。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic neanneoka
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986 asserts checked
21. The root ne can form part of an anaphoric adnoun, yielding ne, nee, and nehe 'this...', and nean (singular) and neoka (plural) 'that/those...'.
    語根 ne は照応的連体詞の一部を形成することができ、「これ…」を意味する ne, nee, nehe や、「あれ／それら…」を意味する nean（単数）および neoka（複数）がある。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all neneeneheneanneoka
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986 asserts checked
22. Grammatically, the anaphoric genitive too is an adnoun.
    文法的に言えば、照応的属格としての too は連体詞である。
    membership hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all too
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986 asserts checked
23. The anaphoric root morpheme ne and the interrogative root morpheme ne may share a common historical origin, and they are also homonymous with the copula ne.
    前方照応の語根形態素 ne と疑問の語根形態素 ne は偶然以上の一致（共通の起源）を持つ可能性があり、コピュラ ne と同音であることも注目に値する。
    diachrony hokkaido/southwest/shizunai ne
    proposes refsing1986
    • refsing1986:111 proposes checked
24. The adnominal demonstratives néa and ne are used anaphorically/contextually to refer to an entity that has already been mentioned in the discourse.
    眼前の対象でなく、既に話題にのぼった対象を指示する文脈指示的な指示連体詞には néa「その」、ne「その」がある。
    form-function hokkaido generic néane
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:218 asserts checked
25. The nominal form corresponding to contextual néa and ne is likely ne wa an pe, though examples are few.
    文脈指示連体詞 néa, ne に相当する名詞的な形式は ne wa an pe と思われるが、例が少ない。
    form-function hokkaido exists ne wa an pe
    proposes sato2008
    • sato2008:218 proposes checked
26. The plural form of néa appears to be nérok, though so far only a single example has been attested.
    néa の複数形として nérok という形式があるようであるが、これまでのところ1例しか得られていない。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido example_only nérok
    proposes sato2008
    • sato2008:219 proposes checked
27. The complex expression ne wa an pe functions as a cohesive unit meaning 'that / it', analyzable as ne 'be so' + wa 'and' + an 'be' + pe 'thing'.
    ne wa an pe は全体で「それ」という意味を表し、文脈を受けて ne「そうなる」＋ wa「て」＋ an「ある」＋ pe「こと」と分析される。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/saru generic ne wa an pe
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:296 asserts checked

Demonstrative pronouns 23 claims ·5 sentences· 1 examples

How are demonstrative pronouns derived from prenominals with the nominalizer -pe, and when does the suffix appear as -p?

1. The demonstrative too sometimes carries the special nuance of emphasizing a subsequent stative verb as being of an amazing degree.
   指示詞 too は、後続する状態動詞が「驚くべき程度」であることを強調する特別なニュアンスをもつことがある。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential too
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
   • refines: The demonstrative adverb too means 'in that way', 'thus', or 'such'.— Describes a specialized intensive nuance of too with stative verbs.
2. The demonstrative pronouns referring to a thing, event, matter, or person are proximal taan pe, distal singular toon pe, and distal plural tooka pe.
   事物・事象・人物を指す名詞的指示表現は、近称 taan pe、遠称単数 toon pe、遠称複数 tooka pe である。
   paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai universal taan petoon petooka pe
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
3. The demonstrative adverb taa means 'in this way'.
   指示副詞 taa は「このように」を意味する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential taa
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
4. The demonstrative adverb taa may be reinforced by the comparative nominalizer koraci ('manner, way').
   指示副詞 taa は比較名詞化辞 koraci（「様態、やり方」）によって強調されることがある。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential taakoraci
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
   • refines: The demonstrative adverb taa means 'in this way'.— Specifies reinforcement of taa with koraci.
5. The demonstrative adverb too means 'in that way', 'thus', or 'such'.
   指示副詞 too は「あのように」「そのように」「そのような」を意味する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential too
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
6. In sentence-initial position, taa and too may function like interjections meaning 'there now!' or 'well!'.
   文頭において taa および too は「ほら！」「さあ！」のような感動詞として機能することがある。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential taatoo
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
7. The demonstrative pronoun taan pe means 'this/these thing(s)/matter(s)/event(s)'.
   指示代名詞 taan pe は「これ（ら）のもの・こと」を意味する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential taan pe
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:99 asserts checked
8. The demonstrative pronoun toon pe means 'that thing/matter/event' or 'that person'.
   指示代名詞 toon pe は「あれ（もの・こと）」あるいは「あの人」を意味する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential toon pe
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
9. The demonstrative pronoun taan pe covers both singular and plural reference.
   指示代名詞 taan pe は単数と複数の両方を表す。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai universal taan pe
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
   • refines: The demonstrative pronoun taan pe means 'this/these thing(s)/matter(s)/event(s)'.— Notes the number neutrality of taan pe.
10. The demonstrative pronoun toon pe has a plural form tooka pe, which consists of the demonstrative root to, the plural existential verb oka, and the nominalizer pe.
    指示代名詞 toon pe には複数形 tooka pe があり、これは指示語根 to、存在動詞複数形 oka、名詞化辞 pe から構成される。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential toon petooka petookape
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
    • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
    • refines: The demonstrative pronoun toon pe means 'that thing/matter/event' or 'that person'.— Details the morphological composition of the plural counterpart tooka pe.
11. When toon pe or tooka pe are used to refer to persons, the reference is derogatory.
    toon pe や tooka pe が人を指すために用いられる場合、その言及は軽蔑的である。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai universal toon petooka pe
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
    • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
12. Polite reference to distal persons uses toon or tooka with nispa or katkemat, whereas neutral reference uses toon kur.
    遠称の人物への丁寧な言及には toon/tooka nispa や toon/tooka katkemat が用いられ、中立的な言及には toon kur が用いられる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai universal toon nispatooka nispatoon katkemattooka katkemattoon kur
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
    • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
13. The neutral expression toon kur lacks a plural equivalent, and *tooka kur is not attested in Shizunai material.
    中立的表現 toon kur には複数相当形がなく、静内の資料に *tooka kur は出現しない。
    absence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai universal toon kur*tooka kur
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
    • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
14. Demonstrative pronouns are divided into proximal te 'here', medial ta 'there', and distal to 'over there'.
    指示代名詞には近称 te「ここ」、中称 ta「そこ」、遠称 to「あそこ」の三系列がある。
    existence ainu all tetato
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
15. The medial and distal demonstrative pronouns are used as adverbs as they are.
    指示代名詞の中称および遠称はそのまま副詞に用いられる。
    distribution ainu generic
    asserts kindaichi1936
    • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
16. Demonstrative pronouns are formed by attaching the nominalizing suffix (formal noun) -pe or -h to demonstrative adnominals such as tan 'this' and tara 'that'.
    指示代名詞は tan「この」、tara「その、あの」などの指示連体詞に名詞化語尾（形式名詞）-pe, -h「もの」が付いて形成される。
    diachrony sakhalin generic -pe-htantara
    asserts murasaki2025
    • murasaki2025:13 asserts checked
17. tah and tampe both serve as demonstratives meaning 'this'.
    tah および tampe は「これ」を表す指示詞である。
    form-function sakhalin tahtampe
    asserts murasaki2025
    • murasaki2025:68 asserts checked
18. tanokaype is a demonstrative pronoun meaning 'these things'.
    tanokaype は「これらのもの」を表す指示代名詞である。
    form-function sakhalin tanokaype
    asserts murasaki2025
    • murasaki2025:68 asserts checked
19. Attaching the formal nouns -h or -pe ('thing') to adnominals derives demonstrative pronouns and nominal forms of numerals.
    連体詞に形式名詞 -h, -pe《〜もの》が接続すると、指示代名詞や数詞の名詞形ができる。
    form-function sakhalin generic -h-pe
    asserts murasaki2025
    • murasaki2025:101 asserts checked
20. The proximal adverb of manner is taa, and the distal adverb of manner is too.
    近称の様態副詞は taa であり、遠称の様態副詞は too である。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all taatoo
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986 asserts checked
21. The plural demonstrative form tooka pe mainly refers to persons.
    指示詞複数形 tooka pe は主に人を指す。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually tooka pe
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
22. Tooka pe is generally pronounced [tookajpe].
    tooka pe は一般に [tookajpe] と発音される。
    alternation hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually tooka pe
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
23. When occurring independently, the instrumental particle ari 'with X' and the delimiting particle patek 'only X' function as demonstratives meaning 'with that' and 'only that'.
    具格助詞 ari「〜で」および限定助詞 patek「〜だけ」は、単独で現れるとき「それで」「それだけ」という意味の指示詞として機能する。
    form-function ainu generic aripatek
    reports shibatani1990
    • shibatani1990:40 reports checked

Locative roots and case-marked forms 9 claims ·5 sentences· 1 examples

Which demonstrative roots act as locative nouns taking case particles, and how do they differ from prenominal modifiers?

1. In Shizunai Ainu, the demonstrative adverbs of place are proximal taan ta and distal toon ta.
   静内方言において、指示場所副詞は近称の taan ta と遠称の toon ta である。
   paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all taan tatoon ta
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
2. In Shizunai Ainu, taan ta functions as a proximal locative adverb meaning 'here'.
   静内方言において、taan ta は「ここに」を意味する近称の場所副詞として機能する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all taan ta
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
   • refines: In Shizunai Ainu, the demonstrative adverbs of place are proximal taan ta and distal toon ta.— Specifies the individual meaning and adverbial function of the proximal locative form taan ta.
3. In Shizunai Ainu, toon ta functions as a distal locative adverb meaning 'there'.
   静内方言において、toon ta は「あそこに」を意味する遠称の場所副詞として機能する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all toon ta
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:101 asserts checked
   • refines: In Shizunai Ainu, the demonstrative adverbs of place are proximal taan ta and distal toon ta.— Specifies the individual meaning and adverbial function of the distal locative form toon ta.
4. Demonstrative pronouns are also used as adverbs by affixing -ta and -un.
   指示代名詞にはさらに -ta および -un を付して副詞に用いる。
   distribution ainu generic -ta-un
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
5. The particle ta was originally a medial demonstrative pronoun meaning 'there'.
   助詞 ta は本来「そこ」を意味する中称の指示代名詞であった。
   diachrony ainu generic ta
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
6. ta and tap were originally medial demonstrative pronouns that shifted to locative particles, and subsequently became interjection particles.
   ta および tap はもと中称指示代名詞であったものが処格助詞に転じ、次いで間投助詞になったものである。
   diachrony all tatap
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
7. Adnominals can directly precede a case particle, as in toan ta 'over there'.
   連体詞は toan ta「あそこに」のように、格助詞を直接後ろに置くこともある。
   distribution ainu generic toan tata
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:283 asserts checked
8. The word tani 'here', formed from tan and the formal noun hi, appears to be restricted to set phrases such as toni un (wa) tani un (wa) 'hither and thither'.
   tan と hi の組み合わせによる tani「ここ」という語も、toni un (wa) tani un(wa)「あっちへ、こっちへ」のような常套句に限られるようである。
   distribution ainu generic tanitanhi
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:288 asserts checked
9. Constructions where a case particle directly follows an adnominal (such as taan ta 'here') are historically contractions of adnominal plus the formal noun hi followed by the particle (e.g. *taan hi ta > taani ta > taan ta).
   taan ta「ここに」のように連体詞に格助詞が直接後続する形式は、歴史的には形式名詞 hi を挟んだ形（taan hi ta > taani ta > taan ta）が縮約されてできたものと考えられる。
   diachrony ainu generic taan tatoon tatoon untoon en
   proposes nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:288 proposes checked

The Shizunai demonstrative grid and dialect variation 12 claims ·15 sentences

How does the Shizunai dialect organize demonstrative, interrogative, and indefinite forms into a systematic paradigm?

1. In the Shizunai dialect, the demonstrative system distinguishes only proximal and distal, lacking the tripartite proximal-mesial-distal distinction reported by Chiri.
   静内方言における指示詞体系は近称と遠称のみを区別し、知里が記述した近称・中称・遠称の3項対立をもたない。
   paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai universal
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:27 asserts checked
2. The two morphemes expressing the proximal versus distal distinction in Shizunai are identical to the morphemes listed by Chiri for mesial and distal deictics.
   静内方言で近称と遠称の区別を表す2つの形態素は、知里が中称および遠称の直示形として挙げた形態素と同一である。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai universal
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986 asserts checked
   • refsing1986:27 asserts checked
   • supports: In the Shizunai dialect, the demonstrative system distinguishes only proximal and distal, lacking the tripartite proximal-mesial-distal distinction reported by Chiri.— Explains how the Shizunai two-way system maps onto Chiri's three-way inventory.
3. Southern Hokkaido Ainu has a three-term deictic system of nominal demonstratives consisting of two proximate terms and one distal term.
   南北海道アイヌ語は、近称2項と遠称1項からなる名詞指示詞の3項直示体系を持つ。
   existence hokkaido/southwest
   reports bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:470–471 reports checked
4. Sakhalin Ainu adnominal demonstratives basically have a two-way spatial distinction between proximal (close to the speaker) and distal (far from the speaker), without distinguishing between Japanese 'sono' and 'ano'.
   樺太アイヌ語の指示連体詞は基本的に話者に近い近称と話者に遠い遠称の2系列であり、日本語の「その」と「あの」の区別はない。
   form-function sakhalin all tantara
   asserts murasaki2025
   • murasaki2025:11 asserts checked
5. In the Saru dialect, the demonstrative adnominals taan, toan, nea, and newaan have distinct plural forms taoka(y), tooka(y), nerok, and newaoka(y), respectively.
   沙流方言において、指示連体詞 taan、toan、nea、newaan にはそれぞれ複数形 taoka(y)、tooka(y)、nerok、newaoka(y) が存在する。
   paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/saru all taantaokataokaytoantookatookay
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:283 asserts checked
6. The demonstrative adnominal tanuka 'these' is reported for the Saru dialect by Tamura (1988a), but actual attestations are extremely few.
   沙流方言の指示連体詞として田村（1988a:81）には tanuka「これらの」も挙げられているが、実例はごくわずかである。
   frequency hokkaido/southwest/saru example_only tanuka
   reports nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:283 reports checked
7. The plural form tanoka(y) corresponding to tanan has very few attestations outside Sakhalin dialects.
   tanan の複数形にあたる tanoka(y) は、樺太方言を除くと用例が非常に少ない。
   frequency hokkaido tanokatanokay
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:284 asserts checked
8. Across dialects, toan and toon 'that (distal)' vary: Saru uses toon less frequently than toan, Chitose uses both frequently, the Ishikari river basin lacks toon, and Obihiro apparently does not use toan.
   遠称の toan と toon は方言差があり、沙流では toon の頻度が低く、千歳では両方がよく使われ、石狩川流域では toon の例がなく、帯広では toan を使わないようである。
   variation hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitosehokkaido/central/ishikarihokkaido/central/tokachi generic toantoon
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:285 asserts checked
9. In dialects from Shizunai eastward, the adnominal ikia (plural ikirok) is used with a meaning similar to nea, whereas in Saru it is used rarely.
   静内から東の方言には nea と同様の意味で用いられる連体詞 ikia（複数形 ikirok）があり、沙流方言でも使われるが用例は nea に比べて非常に少ない。
   variation hokkaido/southwest/shizunaihokkaido/southwest/samanihokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/southwest/saru generic ikiaikiroknea
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:285 asserts checked
10. Outside Saru and Chitose, the form nean is used in a similar anaphoric sense to nea; it is predominantly nean in Tokachi and Kushiro, while both nea and nean are common in Horobetsu, Shizunai, and Ishikari.
    沙流・千歳を除く地域では nea と同様の意味で nean も使われ、十勝や釧路では主に nean であるのに対し、幌別・静内・石狩では nea も nean もよく使われる。
    variation hokkaido generic neanean
    asserts nakagawa2024
    • nakagawa2024:285 asserts checked
11. In Shizunai, the deictic place demonstratives are proximal taanta 'here' and distal toonta 'there', while the interrogative is neyta 'where', and indefinites include neytaka 'somewhere' and neykeka 'somewhere inside'.
    静内方言において、場所指示詞には近称の taanta「ここ」と遠称の toonta「そこ、あそこ」があり、疑問詞は neyta「どこ」、不定詞には neytaka「どこか」や neykeka「どこか中」がある。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all taantatoontaneytaneytakaneykeka
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:109 asserts checked
12. In Shizunai, adnominal demonstratives include anaphoric nean (singular), neoka (plural), and number-unmarked ne/nee/nebe, genitive too 'its', proximal taan/tan 'this/these', distal toon/ton 'that' and tooka 'those', and interrogative neun 'which'.
    静内方言において、連体指示詞には前方照応の単数 nean、複数 neoka、数無標の ne/nee/nebe、属格の too「その」、近称の taan/tan「この」、遠称の toon/ton「その、あの」および tooka「それらの、あれらの」、疑問詞の neun「どの」がある。
    paradigm-cell hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all neanneokaneneenebetoo
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:109 asserts checked

Definiteness in an article-less language 16 sentences

How does Hokkaido Ainu express or omit definiteness, given that it lacks articles and demonstratives are optional?