158. Internal Reconstruction and Grammaticalization Pathways

The scope and tools of internal reconstruction 3 claims ·7 sentences

What methods can reconstruct Ainu prehistory without related languages, and what role does each play?

1. In all dialects of Ainu, the greeting irankarapte is pronounced with [ran] and never with [ram], and while it is segmentable into i-, -te, and the verb rankarap 'greet', rankarap cannot be further decomposed based on current evidence.
   挨拶の irankarapte はどの方言でも [ram] ではなく [ran] と発音され、接辞 i- と -te を除いた動詞 rankarap「挨拶する」までは分析できるが、それ以上に分解することは現在のところできない。
   analysis ainu all irankarapterankarapi--te
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:47 asserts extracted
2. The forms car and par 'mouth' are analyzed as being formed from the stems ca- and pa- plus or 'inside (of)'.
   「口」を表す2つの形式carとparは、語幹ca-/pa-にor「～の内部」が加わって形成されたと考えられる。
   analysis hokkaido all carparca-pa-or
   asserts nakagawafukazawa2022
   • nakagawafukazawa2022:8.5 asserts checked
3. The word ruye is probably etymologically related to ru 'road, path'.
   単語 ruye は語源的に ru「道」と関係している可能性が高い。
   diachrony ainu ruyeru
   proposes refsing1986
   • refsing1986:87 proposes checked

Grammaticalization pathways — an inventory 4 sentences

Which grammaticalization pathways are documented for Ainu functional morphology, and how transparent are their etymologies?

The affiliative suffix -(V)hV: two accounts 16 sentences· 1 examples

How does the affiliative suffix -(V)hV pattern, and what two reconstructions account for its vowel alternations?

The evidential nominals: sensory nouns to clause-final markers 5 claims ·11 sentences

How did the evidential clause-final markers develop from possessed sensory nouns?

1. The visual perception nominalizer sir(i) grammaticalized from the noun sir(i) meaning 'appearance (of surroundings)'.
   視覚的知覚を表す名詞化辞sir(i)は、「（あたりの）様子」を意味する名詞sir(i)から文法化したものである。
   diachrony ainu all sirsiri
   asserts takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.7 asserts checked
2. The non-visual sensory nominalizer hum(i) grammaticalized from the noun hum(i) meaning 'audio or physical perception'.
   視覚以外の感覚による知覚を表す名詞化辞hum(i)は、「音や身体的知覚」を意味する名詞hum(i)から文法化したものである。
   diachrony ainu all humhumi
   asserts takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.7 asserts checked
3. The vocal-perception nominalizer haw(e) grammaticalized from the noun haw(e) meaning 'voice'.
   発声による知覚を表す名詞化辞haw(e)は、「声」を意味する名詞haw(e)から文法化したものである。
   diachrony ainu all hawhawe
   asserts takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.7 asserts checked
4. The evidential nominalizer ru(we) grammaticalized from the noun ru(we) meaning 'road, trace'.
   証拠に基づく確実な知覚を表す名詞化辞ru(we)は、「道、跡」を意味する名詞ru(we)から文法化したものである。
   diachrony ainu all ruruwe
   asserts takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.7 asserts checked
5. In the Horobetsu dialect, nominalizers underwent grammaticalization into adverbial clause markers meaning 'since' or 'though'.
   幌別方言において、名詞化辞は「〜ので」「〜のに」を意味する副詞節標識へと文法化した。
   diachrony hokkaido/southwest/horobetsu generic
   asserts takahashi2022
   • takahashi2022:18.7 asserts checked

Free verbs grammaticalized as bound suffixes 7 claims ·7 sentences· 1 examples

Which free verbs became bound derivational suffixes in Ainu, and what pathway did they follow?

1. The verb ani 'to hold' grammaticalized into the instrumental marker 'with; by'.
   動詞 ani「持つ」は具格標識「〜で、〜によって」へと文法化した。
   diachrony ainu ani
   asserts alonso2022
   • alonso2022:5.3 asserts checked
2. The noun kusu 'reason' grammaticalized into the causal conjunction 'because; due to'.
   名詞 kusu「理由」は「〜だから、〜のために」を意味する接続詞へと文法化した。
   diachrony ainu kusu
   asserts alonso2022
   • alonso2022:5.3 asserts checked
3. The copula ne grammaticalized from the anaphoric pronoun ne.
   コピュラ ne は前方照応代名詞 ne から文法化した。
   diachrony ainu ne
   asserts alonso2022
   • alonso2022:5.3 asserts checked
4. The logophoric system of Ainu developed through the grammaticalization of non-singular inclusive markers.
   アイヌ語の体験話法（ロゴフォリック）体系は、非単数包括形標識の文法化によって生じた。
   diachrony ainu generic
   asserts bugaeva2008
   • bugaeva2008 asserts checked
5. The postpositional adverb eun is etymologically unrelated to allative un and is likely derived from the verb un ('to fit into') with the directional/head prefix e-.
   後置副詞 eun は向格助詞 un とは語源的に無関係であり、「〜にはまる」を意味する動詞 un に頭部を表す接頭辞 e- が付いたものであると考えられる。
   diachrony hokkaido generic eunune-
   proposes nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:304 proposes checked
6. The positional turasi originates in the comitative tura 'together with', which itself goes back to a transitive verb meaning 'follow'.
   位置名詞 turasi は共格の tura「〜とともに」に関係しており、tura は本来「従う」を意味する他動詞に由来する。
   diachrony ainu generic turasitura
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:169 asserts anchored
7. The etymology of indefinite an-/-an, and probably of a- as well, overlaps with that of the existential verb an.
   不定人称の an-/-an、そしておそらく a- の語源も、存在動詞 an の語源と重なっている。
   diachrony ainu all anan--ana-
   proposes refsing1986
   • refsing1986:218 proposes checked

Aspectual an and the posture-verb pathway 1 claims ·6 sentences

What is the lexical source of existential/aspectual an, and how does suppletion corroborate that origin?

1. The Pan-Ainu singular verb a and plural verb rok 'to sit down' grammaticalized into durative or perfective markers.
   汎アイヌ語の動詞 a（単数）および rok（複数）「座る」は、継続または完了の標識へと文法化した。
   diachrony ainu arok
   asserts alonso2022
   • alonso2022:5.3 asserts checked

The nominalizers -p/-pe and the cep case 3 claims ·10 sentences· 1 examples

What nominal source underlies the nominalizers -p/-pe, and how did it grammaticalize as a suffix?

1. Nominalization in Ainu developed from zero-nominalization through added nominalizing words to Sakhalin possessive-marked nominalization and its independent main-clause use.
   アイヌ語の名詞化はゼロ名詞化から名詞化語の付加を経て、樺太アイヌ語の所属形的一致を伴う形式およびその独立主節用法へと発展した。
   diachrony hokkaidosakhalin exists v-poss
   proposes bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 proposes checked
2. The Sakhalin Ainu v-poss nominalization is hypothesized to have originated in adverbial clauses containing the copula ne(e).
   樺太アイヌ語のv-poss形式は、係辞 ne(e) を含む副詞節に起源を持つと推測される。
   diachrony sakhalin exists v-possnenee
   proposes bugaeva2016
   • bugaeva2016 proposes checked
   • refines: Nominalization in Ainu developed from zero-nominalization through added nominalizing words to Sakhalin possessive-marked nominalization and its independent main-clause use.— Proposes the specific syntactic origin of the most innovative stage in the nominalization cline.
3. The nominalizing suffix -i and the construct suffix -hV ~ -V(hV) in Ainu are likely to derive from the generic noun *hi.
   アイヌ語の名詞化接尾辞 -i および連造形（所属形）接尾辞 -hV ~ -V(hV) は、一般名詞 *hi に由来する可能性が高い。
   diachrony ainu all -i-hV-V(hV)*hi
   asserts nam2021
   • nam2021 asserts checked

The applicative prefixes — a disputed diachrony 8 sentences

What origins have been proposed for the applicative prefixes e-, o-, and ko-?

Layering, renewal, and what the dialect record shows 5 claims ·11 sentences

How do dialect differences reveal layering and renewal along the same grammaticalization cline?

1. According to Nakagawa (1988), asinuma appeared in response to the reanalysis of verbs with non-singular affixation as singular forms.
   中川 (1988) によれば、asinuma は非単数接辞を付した動詞が単数形へと再分析されたことに対応して出現した。
   diachrony hokkaido/southwest generic asinumaarpa=anpaye=an
   reports bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:474–475 reports checked
2. hine has been analyzed etymologically as the nominalizer hi followed by the copula ne.
   hine の語源は、形式名詞／名詞化辞 hi にコピュラ ne が後続したものと説明されている。
   diachrony ainu hinehine
   reports refsing1986
   • refsing1986:242 reports checked
3. Akus is supported etymologically as a combination of the durative auxiliary a and the consequential conjunctionalizer kusu.
   akusは語源的に継続の助動詞aと帰結の接続助詞kusuの結合であるという説明が支持される。
   diachrony hokkaido/southwest/shizunai akusakusu
   proposes refsing1986
   • refsing1986:248 proposes anchored
4. Konno is possibly an etymological combination of the verb kor 'have' and a coordinative conjunctionalizer.
   konnoは動詞kor「持つ」と並立接続助詞の結合である可能性がある。
   diachrony hokkaido/southwest/shizunai konnokor
   proposes refsing1986
   • refsing1986:248 proposes checked
5. The ka of korka can be analyzed historically as the restrictive postposition ka added to kor, the contemporal conjunctionalizer found in dialects such as Saru.
   korka の ka は、沙流方言などに見られる同時接続語化辞 kor に限定後置詞 ka が付加されたものと解釈しうる。
   diachrony hokkaido korkakorka
   proposes refsing1986
   • refsing1986:258 proposes checked

Classifier relics — a cautionary assessment 4 claims ·7 sentences

What evidence for earlier classifier relics in noun-final consonants has been suggested, and why is it uncertain?

1. Earlier stages of Ainu likely possessed a larger system of verbal appositive classifiers in possessive constructions than recent varieties.
   初期のアイヌ語には、近年の諸方言よりも大規模な動詞的同格類別詞の体系が所有構文に存在していた可能性が高い。
   diachrony ainu exists kormian-tehekotemutresu
   proposes bugaeva2022
   • bugaeva2022:1.5 proposes checked
2. An earlier set of classificatory verbs in Ainu is hypothesized to have specified semantic domains such as hunting, animal raising, food preparation, clothing, houses, and functional objects.
   かつてのアイヌ語の類別動詞群には、狩猟・飼育、調理法、衣服、家屋、機能別の物品などを明示する項目が含まれていたと推定される。
   diachrony ainu exists
   proposes bugaeva2021poss
   • bugaeva2021poss proposes checked
   • refines: Earlier stages of Ainu likely possessed a larger system of verbal appositive classifiers in possessive constructions than recent varieties.— Specifies the particular semantic domains encompassed by the hypothesized older classifier system.
3. Earlier specific verbal classifiers in possessive constructions were replaced historically by the verb kor 'have', collapsing multiple alienable classes into a single class.
   所有構文における以前の具体的な類別動詞群は歴史的に動詞 kor「持つ」へと置き換えられ、複数の譲渡可能名詞クラスが単一のクラスへと縮小した。
   diachrony ainu exists kor
   proposes bugaeva2021poss
   • bugaeva2021poss proposes checked
   • supports: Earlier stages of Ainu likely possessed a larger system of verbal appositive classifiers in possessive constructions than recent varieties.— Explains how the hypothesized larger system was historically reduced to the modern kor construction.
4. The kor construction is undergoing a transition from dependent-marking to head-marking as the verb kor cliticizes to the head noun.
   kor 構文は、動詞 kor が主要部名詞へ接語化することにより、従属部標示から主要部標示構文へと移行する過程にある。
   diachrony ainu kor
   asserts bugaeva2021poss
   • bugaeva2021poss asserts checked