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A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Knowledge base · Part XVIII — Information Structure, Sentence-Final Particles, and Minor Classes

140. Topic and Focus Marking: anak(ne), patek, and ka

Which particles mark topic and focus in Hokkaido Ainu, and what distinctions do they make between thematic and contrastive topics and restrictive, additive, and scalar focus?

北海道アイヌ語で主題と焦点を標示する助詞は何か、また主題と対照主題、限定的・付加的・スケール的焦点の区別をどう表すか。

The topic/contrastive-topic particle anak~anakne and the focus-sensitive particles patek 'only' and ka 'also/even': thematic vs contrastive topic, restrictive/additive/scalar focus, and the NPI use of ka.

candidate topic from the first edition topic:discourse/topic-marking-anakne read this topic as text

109claims
172statements
15sources
7examples
12sections
67first-edition sentences

Local network

The chapter, its sections, the sources it cites, the chapters it cross-references, the forms it mentions most, and the claims grouped under it with the sources that assert, propose, doubt or reject each.

Related chapters

Forms mentioned

anak 12anakne 7patek 6ka 6hem 3ki 2korka 2ne 2poka 2pokay 2patek ani 2ta 1tasi 1tap 1…p ne 1…hi ne 1wakka 1sake 1toan pe 1kani 1eani 1*ku= anakne 1*en= anakne 1asinuma 1yak 1an-yak 1an 1neyke 1neanpe 1takup 1takupi 1ani 1ani patek 1kay 1nep ka 1nen ka 1ney ta ka 1hemem 1X hem Y hem 1usa 1

Claims

A claim is one proposition; under it stand the statements of each source, with the stance that source takes. Claims are grouped by a model from the extracted statements and carry that status until reviewed.

  1. The particle neyke marks a topic ('as for').
    neyke は主題を表す（「〜は」）。
    form-function sakhalin generic neyke
    asserts murasaki2025
  2. The particle ta emphasizes the immediately preceding element to express a wishful meaning like 'if only it were...'.
    ta は直前の語句を強調して、「〜だったらいいのになあ」という願望の表現を表す。
    form-function generic ta
    asserts nakagawa2024
  3. The emphatic particle ta can correlate with the sentence-final particle oka.
    強調の ta は終助詞 oka と呼応することもある。
    distribution generic taoka
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. tas(i) emphasizes the immediately preceding word or phrase and can correlate with the sentence-final particle nek.
    tas(i) は直前にある語句を強調し、終助詞 nek と呼応することがある。
    form-function generic tasitasnek
    asserts nakagawa2024
  5. The emphatic particle meaning 'indeed / especially' is used as esta in the Shizunai dialect and as estap in the Tokachi dialect.
    直前の語句を強調する助詞は、静内方言では esta、十勝方言では estap の形で使われる。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/shizunaihokkaido/central/tokachi all estaestap
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. esta and estap frequently correlate with the sentence-final particle ne.
    esta と estap は終助詞 ne と呼応することも多い。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunaihokkaido/central/tokachi usually estaestapne
    asserts nakagawa2024
  7. As an adverbial particle, kane is used in set expressions such as sekor kane, tapne kane, neno kane, and teeta kane.
    副助詞としての kane は、sekor kane、tapne kane、neno kane、teeta kane など決まった表現で使われる。
    distribution generic kanesekor kanetapne kaneneno kaneteeta kane
    asserts nakagawa2024
  8. In expressions such as tapne kane, neno kane, and teeta kane, kane was added for metrical and rhythmic reasons to smooth phrasing, resulting in fixed idiomatic expressions without an emphatic or unexpected sense.
    tapne kane、neno kane、teeta kane などにおける kane は意外性や強調性を伴わず、むしろ口調を整える音律的条件で付加されて常套句化したと考えられる。
    analysis generic kanetapne kaneneno kaneteeta kane
    proposes nakagawa2024

Sections

·

The delimiting-particle (副助詞) layer 22 claims ·8 sentences

What class of particles encodes information structure, and how do they attach to phrases without changing the host's grammatical category?

  1. The restrictive postposition anak functions as a topic or contrast marker, whereas ka functions as an inclusive particle meaning 'also/even/too'.
    とりたて後置詞 anak は主題・対照標識として機能し、一方 ka は「〜も／〜さえ」を表す包括後置詞として機能する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai anakka
    asserts refsing1986
  2. In Shizunai Ainu, the restrictive postpositions other than anak and ka include interrogative he, hene 'at least', pakno 'up to/even', distributive ranke, patek 'only/just', and keray 'only/no more than'.
    静内方言において、anak と ka 以外のとりたて後置詞には疑問の he、「せめて」の hene、「〜まで／〜さえ」の pakno、配分の ranke、「〜だけ」の patek、「〜にすぎない」の keray が含まれる。
    membership hokkaido/southwest/shizunai hehenepaknorankepatekkeray
    asserts refsing1986
  3. Secondary particles (huku-joshi) attach to various units such as noun phrases, verb phrases, and adverb phrases to add meaning.
    副助詞は名詞句、動詞句、副詞句などさまざまなものに添えて、意味を加える役割を果たす。
    form-function ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. When a secondary particle is attached to a noun phrase or adverb phrase, the whole constituent continues to function as a noun phrase or adverb phrase without changing its function.
    副助詞が名詞句や副詞句に添えられた場合はその機能を変えずに、全体として名詞句、副詞句として働く。
    distribution ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  5. When a secondary particle is attached to a verb phrase, the resulting constituent cannot be used as a verb phrase as is, and must be restored to a verb phrase by adding a verb such as ki 'do' or other auxiliary verbs.
    副助詞が動詞句に添えられた場合には、そのまま動詞句としては使えないので、ki「〜をする」などの動詞を加えて動詞句に戻す必要がある。
    distribution ainu all ki
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. A conjunctive particle such as kor cannot attach directly to a verb phrase marked by the secondary particle ka without an intervening verb like ki.
    副助詞 ka が付いた動詞句にはそれ自体では動詞句ではないため接続助詞 kor が直接つくことはできず、*a=kooyoyse ka a=okunnure ka kor は非文である。
    judgement hokkaido/southwest/saru none kakor
    asserts nakagawa2024
  7. The restrictive postpositions anak and ka appear to exist in all dialects of Ainu.
    限定後置詞anakおよびkaはアイヌ語のすべての方言に存在するように思われる。
    existence ainu all anakka
    asserts refsing1986
  8. Apart from anak and ka, dialect differences in restrictive postpositions are considerable, resulting in very little overlap between the Saru and Shizunai dialects.
    anakとkaを除いて、限定後置詞における方言差はかなり大きく、沙流方言と静内方言の間で重複するものは極めて少ない。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/shizunaihokkaido/southwest/saru generic anakka
    asserts refsing1986
  9. Restrictive postpositions may follow all types of nominals, noun expressions, and clitics such as case postpositions, conjunctionalizers, and nominalizers without altering their syntactical role.
    限定後置詞はあらゆる種類の体言、名詞表現のほか、格後置詞・接続詞化辞・名詞化辞といった接語にも後続でき、その統語的役割を変えない。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic
    asserts refsing1986
  10. The two most frequent restrictive postpositions are anak and ka.
    最も頻度の高い2つのとりたて後置詞は anak と ka である。
    frequency hokkaido/southwest/shizunai measured anakka
    asserts refsing1986
  11. The two most frequent restrictive postpositions are anak and ka, which roughly correspond to the Japanese focus particles wa and mo, respectively.
    最も頻度の高い二つの限定後置詞は anak と ka であり、それぞれ日本語のとりたて助詞「は」と「も」におおよそ対応する。
    frequency hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic anakka
    asserts refsing1986
  12. The particle easir means 'for the first time' or 'only then / precisely'.
    easir は「はじめて，こそ」という意味を表す。
    form-function hokkaido generic easir
    asserts sato2008
  13. The focus particle hetap can also appear in the form hetap ne, and it seems to be used mainly in oral literature as a somewhat formal expression.
    副助詞 hetap は hetap ne という形式が用いられることもあり、主に口承文芸でやや格式ばった言い方として用いられるようである。
    variation hokkaido usually hetaphetap ne
    proposes sato2008
  14. The particle konna is predominantly used in oral literature, where it occurs in idiomatic expressions followed mainly by verbs ending in -natara, -atki, or -rototke.
    konna は主に口承文芸で用いられ、konna の後に主として -natara、-atki、-rototke で終わる動詞が来る慣用的な表現がある。
    distribution generic konna-natara-atki-rototke
    asserts sato2008
  15. Before konna, nouns forming content clauses such as ru 'trace/appearance', sir 'state', hum 'sound', or haw 'voice/words' frequently occur.
    konna の前には、ru「跡」、sir「有様」、hum「音」、haw「話」のような、内容節を形成する名詞が来ることが多い。
    distribution usually konnarusirhumhaw
    asserts sato2008
  16. There is a particle kan that appears to have a function similar to konna, although examples are extremely rare.
    例は極めて少ないが、konna と類似した機能を持つとみられる形式として kan がある。
    existence exists kan
    asserts sato2008
  17. takup can also be used independently as a quasi-adverbial particle.
    takup は単独で副助詞的に使われることもある。
    distribution takup
    asserts sato2008
  18. The particle tap is placed after the element to be emphasized to express emphasis.
    tap は強調すべき要素の後に置かれて強調を表す。
    form-function generic tap
    asserts sato2008
  19. tap is followed either by ne 'be' or by an 'exist'; usually ne is used, while an appears to be used especially to indicate exclamation.
    tap の後には ne「〜である」が来る場合と an「ある」が来る場合とがあり、通常は ne が用いられ、特に感歎の意味を明示する場合には an が用いられるようである。
    distribution generic tapnean
    asserts sato2008
  20. The emphatic particle tasi is placed after the emphasized element.
    強調の副助詞 tasi は強める要素の後に置かれる。
    ordering all tasi
    asserts sato2008
  21. ne yakka 'even / or' is an adverbial particle-like form.
    ne yakka「でも」は副助詞的な形式である。
    membership generic ne yakka
    asserts sato2008
  22. The topic particle anakne and particles of emphasis such as amun and easir can mark objects, other noun phrases, and adverbials.
    主題助詞 anakne や amun、easir などの強調助詞は、目的語やその他の名詞句、さらには副詞類をも標示することができる。
    distribution ainu generic anakneamuneasir
    asserts shibatani1990

anak and anakne: the topic particle 15 claims ·0 sentences

How does the topic particle anak(ne) mark a phrase as the current topic of talk?

  1. The particles anak and anakne mark the topic of a sentence or express contrast.
    助詞 anak および anakne は、文の主題を提示したり、対照を表したりする。
    form-function ainu anakanakne
    asserts nakagawa2024, sato2008
  2. Topical NPs tend to occur clause-initially.
    主題の名詞句は節頭に置かれる傾向がある。
    ordering ainu usually
    asserts bugaeva2012
  3. The postposition anak, which is sometimes extended to anakne, singles out an adjunct as the topic of an utterance, and an adjunct marked by anak(ne) in this function is generally placed at the beginning of the sentence.
    後置詞 anak（anakne に拡張されることもある）は連用修飾語を発話の主題として際立たせる働きをし、この機能において anak(ne) で標示された連用修飾語は通常文頭に置かれる。
    ordering hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually anakanakne
    asserts refsing1986
  4. The postposition anak, sometimes extended to anakne, serves to single out an adjunct as the topic of an utterance.
    後置詞 anak（anakne に拡張されることもある）は、発話の主題（トピック）として副加語を際立たせる働きをする。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic anakanakne
    asserts refsing1986
  5. An adjunct marked by anak(ne) in topicalizing function is generally positioned at the beginning of the sentence.
    主題表示機能において anak(ne) で標示された副加語は、一般に文頭に置かれる。
    ordering hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually anakanakne
    asserts refsing1986
  6. When anak(ne) marks topic or contrast, it also carries an element of emphasis, and in some instances it functions principally to express pure emphasis.
    anak(ne) が主題や対照を表す際にも強調の要素が含まれており、場合によっては純粋な強調を主として表す機能を持つ。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic anakanakne
    asserts refsing1986
  7. When anak(ne) marks topic or contrast, it also contains an element of emphasis.
    anak(ne)が主題や対比を標示する際、強調の要素も含んでいる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic anakanakne
    asserts refsing1986
  8. The particle anak(ne) has a third function of pure emphasis, in which the emphatic element is more dominant than topic or contrast.
    助詞anak(ne)には、強調の要素が主題や対比の側面よりも優勢となる、純粋な強調という第3の用法がある。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic anakanakne
    asserts refsing1986
  9. The particle anakne is an adverbial particle (focus particle) marking topic, similar in function to Japanese wa.
    anakne は「主題」を表す副助詞であり、日本語の「〜は」と働きが似ている。
    form-function hokkaido generic anakne
    asserts sato2008
  10. The particles anak and anakne are used when the speaker makes a new predication about an entity that the hearer is already considered to know (a topic), or when contrasting two matters.
    anak, anakne は、聞き手も既に知っていると考えている事柄（主題）について話者が新しく叙述を加える文や、二つの事柄の対比をする場合に用いられる。
    form-function hokkaido generic anakanakne
    asserts sato2008
  11. tane anakne, consisting of tane 'now' and the adverbial particle anakne 'TOP', is often used when comparing two occasions.
    tane anakne は tane「今」に副助詞 anakne「は」が付いたもので、二つの機会を比較するような場合にしばしば用いられる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru usually tane anaknetaneanakne
    asserts sato2008
  12. anak functions as a topic particle meaning 'as for'.
    anak は「〜は」を表す主題の助詞として機能する。
    form-function anak
    asserts sato2008
  13. anakne functions as a topic particle meaning 'as for'.
    anakne は「〜は」を表す主題の助詞として機能する。
    form-function anakne
    asserts sato2008
  14. Ainu possesses the topic particle anak(ne), functioning similarly to the topic markers wa in Japanese and nun in Korean.
    アイヌ語には、日本語の「は」や朝鮮語の nun に相当する主題助詞 anak(ne) が存在する。
    existence ainu generic anakanakne
    asserts shibatani1990
  15. The use of the topic particle anak(ne) is not as prevalent in yukar as in colloquial Ainu.
    主題助詞 anak(ne) の使用は、口語アイヌ語ほどユカㇻにおいては一般的ではない。
    frequency ainu generic anakanakne
    asserts shibatani1990

Form and attachment 2 claims ·8 sentences· 1 examples

What is the form and attachment of the topic particle, and does the choice between anak and anakne affect meaning?

  1. The topic particle anakne clarifies the boundary pause between constituents and can also attach to accusative arguments.
    主題助詞 anakne は成分間の休止を明確にする働きをし、対格にもつくことができる。
    form-function anakne
    asserts kindaichi1936
  2. When anak is placed after a verb, the construction can be restored to a verb phrase by repeating the same verb instead of adding ki.
    動詞の後ろにanakが置かれた場合、kiなどを置く代わりに同じ動詞をもう一度繰り返すことで動詞句にすることができる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/saru exists anakki
    asserts nakagawa2024
imi anak neun oka yakka pirka korka e=kewtumu a=ramosma wa ne
clothes TOP how exist even.if good but 2SG.POSS=heart 4.A=please CONJ COP
‘The clothes, whatever they are like, are fine; your heart is what pleased me.’
nakagawa2024:321 SAR Nakagawa ex. 515

Topic versus contrastive topic 1 claims ·4 sentences· 2 examples

How does the language distinguish a plain topic from a contrastive topic when using the same particle?

  1. The particle anak(ne) can mark an adjunct as contrasting with an explicit or implicit counterpart.
    助詞 anak(ne) は、明示的または暗示的な他の副加語と対比される副加語を標示することができる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai anakanakne
    asserts refsing1986
ku=nu hi anak k=eramuan pe ne korka tasa itak anak k=eranpewtek
1SG.A=hear NMLZ TOP 1SG.S=know NMLZ COP but reply speech TOP 1SG.S=not.know
‘The question I understand, but the answer I don't know.’
sato2008:62 CHI
wakka anak ku=ku rusuy ka somo ki korka sake ku=ku rusuy wa
water TOP 1SG.A=drink DES even NEG do but sake 1SG.A=drink DES FIN
‘I don't want to drink water, but I do want to drink sake.’
sato2008:62–63 CHI

The given-information restriction 1 claims ·4 sentences

What condition restricts the topic particle to referents already known to the hearer, excluding first-mention items?

  1. The particles anak and anakne are difficult to use for something that is brought up as a topic for the first time at that moment, even if the hearer can recognize it immediately within the setting.
    たとえ聞き手が場面の中ですぐに認識できるようなものであっても、その時初めて話題に上ったものに anak, anakne は使いにくい。
    distribution hokkaido generic anakanakne
    proposes sato2008

Scope and weight compared with Japanese wa 1 claims ·4 sentences

How does the use of the topic particle differ in weight and frequency from Japanese wa, and what nuance does it add?

  1. Although anak(ne) resembles Japanese wa, it is not used as frequently as wa, so substituting wa directly with anak(ne) results in unnatural sentences.
    anak(ne)は日本語の「は」によく似た使い方をするが、「は」ほどよく使われるわけではないので、日本語の「は」をそのまま anak(ne) に置き換えていくと、不自然な文になる。
    frequency ainu generic anakanakne
    asserts nakagawa2024

Person affixes and independent pronouns 8 sentences· 2 examples

Why can the topic particle not attach to person-agreement prefixes, and how are independent pronouns treated instead?

kani anakne Sikot ta k=an menoko ka somo ne kusu
1SG TOP Chitose LOC 1SG.S=be woman even NEG COP because
‘As for me, I am not even a woman from Chitose — (so …).’
nakagawa2024:256 SAR Nakagawa ex. 323
a=kor seta anakne i=oyakke oma ka somo ki p ne kusu i=sam ta ukasuy ipe=an
4.A=have dog TOP 4.O=go.far go even NEG do NMLZ COP because 4.O=vicinity LOC together eat=4.S
‘My dog never went far from me, so we ate together beside each other.’
ilcaa1976 SAR Kawakamu Matsuko (川上まつ子), uwepeker (AA研アイヌ語資料)

anak versus anakne and diachrony 2 claims ·7 sentences

Are anak and anakne used identically in texts, or does their frequency differ across dialects and sources?

  1. There is basically no semantic difference between anak and anakne.
    anak と anakne の間には基本的に意味の違いはない。
    form-function ainu all anakanakne
    asserts nakagawa2024
  2. The forms anak and anakne are used interchangeably without an apparent difference in meaning, but in actual frequency anakne occurs nearly twice as often as anak.
    anak と anakne は意味に違いはないようであるが、実際の用例数は anakne の方が多く、anak の二倍近くにのぼる。
    frequency hokkaido measured anakanakne
    asserts sato2008

Restrictive focus: patek and its near-synonyms 20 claims ·11 sentences· 1 examples

How does the particle patek mark restrictive focus, and to which phrase types can it attach?

  1. The restrictive postposition patek indicates the exclusiveness of the preceding adjunct, meaning 'only/just'.
    とりたて後置詞 patek は先行する付加語の排他性を表し、「〜だけ／〜ばかり」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai patek
    asserts refsing1986
  2. The exclusiveness of an action can also be indicated by patek.
    行為の排他性もまた patek によって表されることがある。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai patek
    asserts refsing1986
  3. The particle poka means 'at least' or 'even just'.
    助詞 poka は「だけでも」「なりとも」を意味する。
    form-function poka
    asserts kindaichi1936
  4. The particle pateh expresses exclusivity or limitation ('only').
    助詞 pateh は限定（「～だけ」）を表す。
    form-function sakhalin generic pateh
    asserts murasaki2025
  5. The particle patek expresses that only the specified entity is included and others are excluded.
    patek はそれだけが含まれ、他は含まれないことを表す。
    form-function generic patek
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. patek possesses high independence and can stand sentence-initially in independent use.
    patek は独立用法において文頭に立つことができるなど、自立性が高い。
    distribution generic patek
    asserts nakagawa2024
  7. Whereas postpositional adverbial particles are generally placed after noun phrases, patek also occurs after verb phrases and adverb phrases.
    後置副助詞が一般に名詞句の後ろに後置されるのに対し、patek は動詞句や副詞句の後ろにも現れる。
    distribution generic patek
    asserts nakagawa2024
  8. The author argues that patek should be analyzed as an adverbial particle with independent usage.
    著者は patek について、自立的用法を持った副助詞と考えるべきであると提案する。
    analysis generic patek
    proposes nakagawa2024
  9. While patek is attested widely across various dialects, takup is restricted and only attested in western Hokkaido dialects such as Horobetsu, Saru, and Chitose.
    patek は広く多様な方言に見られるが、takup は限定されており、幌別、沙流、千歳といった北海道西部の方言でしか確認できない。
    variation hokkaido generic patektakup
    asserts nakagawa2024
  10. poka and pokay indicate a minimum standard for realization and are used when demanding realization or in negative contexts where even that minimum cannot be achieved, but cannot be used for events that have already been realized.
    poka と pokay は実現を求める最低基準を示し、すでに実現したことには使えず、実現を要求する場合やそれすら実現できない否定的な意味の場合に用いられる。
    form-function hokkaido generic pokapokay
    asserts nakagawa2024
  11. poka is used in comparatively western regions of Hokkaido (Horobetsu, Chitose, Saru, Shizunai, Ishikari, etc.), whereas pokay is used in regions such as Samani, Tokachi, Shiranuka, and Asahikawa.
    poka は幌別、千歳、沙流、静内、石狩など北海道の比較的西寄りの地域で用いられ、pokay は様似、十勝、白糠、旭川などで用いられる。
    variation hokkaido all pokapokay
    asserts nakagawa2024
  12. Keray indicates not only the exclusiveness of the adjunct it follows, but also adds emphasis ('really').
    keray は後続する付加語の排他性を示すだけでなく、「実に」「本当に」という強調を加える。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic keray
    asserts refsing1986
  13. Keray is not as frequently employed as patek, and is mostly used in connection with quantity nouns.
    keray は patek ほど頻繁には用いられず、主に数量名詞とともに用いられる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually keraypatek
    asserts refsing1986
  14. The postposition keray indicates exclusiveness of the preceding adjunct with added emphasis ('really'), is less frequent than patek, and is mostly used in connection with quantity nouns.
    後置詞 keray は先行する連用修飾語の排他性を強調（「実に」）を加えて表し、patek ほど頻繁には用いられず、主に数量名詞と関連して用いられる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic keray
    asserts refsing1986
  15. The particle patek 'only, just' is a focus particle (adverbial particle) that negates other things and emphasizes a particular entity.
    patek「〜ばかり」は他のものを否定してあるものを強調する副助詞である。
    form-function hokkaido generic patek
    asserts sato2008
  16. The particle póka 'at least ...' is a focus particle that designates the bare minimum.
    póka「せめて〜だけでも」は最低限度のものを指定する「取り立て」の副助詞である。
    form-function hokkaido generic póka
    asserts sato2008
  17. When the element preceding patek is perceived negatively, the form takup 'only' may be added before it.
    patek の前に来るものが否定的にとらえられたものである場合、takup「だけ」という形式が付け加えられることがある。
    distribution patektakup
    asserts sato2008
  18. The primary meaning of póka is to restrict to a minimum standard and strongly affirm it.
    póka の「表」の意味は最低基準に限定してそれを強く肯定する、というものである。
    form-function generic póka
    asserts sato2008
  19. The particle póka frequently conveys an urgent nuance of 'at least that much'.
    póka は「せめてそれだけでも」という切迫したニュアンスを表すことが多い。
    form-function usually póka
    asserts sato2008
  20. The construction ne yakka 'even' has a meaning similar to póka, but lacks its urgent nuance.
    ne yakka「でも」は póka に似た意味を持つが、切迫したニュアンスはない。
    form-function generic ne yakka
    asserts sato2008
cis patek a=ki kor an=an pe ne ru-we ne a p
cry only 4.A=do while exist=4.S NMLZ COP track-POSS COP PFV NMLZ
‘(She) was doing nothing but crying, and yet …’
nakagawa2024:328 SAR Nakagawa ex. 548

Additive and scalar focus: ka, hem, and hene 2 claims ·0 sentences

What particles express additive focus, and how do they differ in implying scalarity or surprise?

  1. The particle otta can be interpreted as an adverbial particle meaning 'even, also', apparently used only for closely paired items such as 'man and woman'.
    otta は「〜も」のような意味の副助詞と解釈でき、「男と女」のような密接な対をなすものについてのみ使われる形式のようである。
    form-function ainu exists otta
    proposes sato2008
  2. otta functions as a particle meaning 'also, even'.
    otta は「〜も」を意味する助詞である。
    form-function otta
    asserts sato2008

ka: additive, scalar, and NPI-forming 21 claims ·8 sentences· 1 examples

How does the particle ka express additive, scalar, or contrary-to-expectation focus, and how does it form negative polarity items?

  1. The inclusive postposition ka occurs with considerably higher frequency than anak and serves a wide variety of functions.
    包括後置詞 ka は anak よりもかなり高い頻度で現れ、多様な機能で用いられる。
    frequency hokkaido/southwest/shizunai kaanak
    asserts refsing1986
  2. In negative sentences, ka can convey the nuance of not even being included, although it ought to be.
    否定文において ka は、（当然含まれるべきであるのに）〜すら含まれないというニュアンスを表しうる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai ka
    asserts refsing1986
  3. In positive sentences, ka means 'too/also' and marks an adjunct as included along with something not explicitly stated.
    肯定文において ka は「〜もまた」を意味し、明示されていない他のものとともに付加語が含まれることを標示する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai ka
    asserts refsing1986
  4. The assertive construction with [verb] ka ki usually conveys that something is included as well, contrary to expectation.
    「動詞 + ka ki」という断定構文は通常、含まれるべきでないのに〜もまた含まれているというニュアンスを帯びる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai kaki
    asserts refsing1986
  5. The main clause subject can be topicalized and extraposed from the sentence by using restrictive particles such as ka or yak-ka.
    主節主語はkaやyak-kaのような限定小粒子を用いて主題化され、文から外置されうる。
    form-function ainu generic kayak-ka
    asserts bugaeva2015
  6. The particle ka ('also, even') is considered to have developed from the quasi-postposition ka ('top, above'), shifting in meaning from 'on top of that' to 'also'.
    助詞 ka（「も」）は格類似形式の ka（「上」）が「その上に」から「も亦」の意味へ転じたものと考えられる。
    diachrony ka
    proposes kindaichi1936
  7. The particles ka and kay express adding and indicating something in addition to others ('also, even').
    ka および kay は、他のものにさらにつけ加えて示すことを表す（「〜も」）。
    form-function ainu generic kakay
    asserts nakagawa2024
  8. The form ka is used in Horobetsu, Saru, Chitose, Tokachi, Ishikari, and Sakhalin, whereas kay is used in eastern Hokkaido dialects such as Samani, Tokachi, Shiranuka, and Kushiro.
    幌別、沙流、千歳、十勝、石狩、樺太では ka が、様似、十勝、白糠、釧路などの北海道東部の方言では kay が用いられる。
    variation hokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitosehokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/central/ishikarisakhalinhokkaido/southwest/samanihokkaido/northeast/kushiro generic kakay
    asserts nakagawa2024
  9. In the Tokachi dialect, both forms ka and kay are found.
    十勝方言では ka と kay の両方の形が見られるようである。
    variation hokkaido/central/tokachi all kakay
    proposes nakagawa2024
  10. In some eastern Hokkaido dialects, the particle ka and conjunction particles ending in -ka (such as yakka, korka) appear with final -y as kay, yakkay, and korkay.
    北海道東部の一部の諸方言では、助詞 ka および -ka で終わる接続助詞（yakka、korka など）の末尾に -y が付加して kay、yakkay、korkay として現れる。
    variation hokkaido/central/tokachihokkaido/northeast/kushirohokkaido/northeast/kitami generic kakayyákkayákkaykórkakórkay
    asserts nakagawafukazawa2022
  11. When ka marks an adjunct as inclusive, the cross-reference for the inclusion is generally not stated explicitly, but if stated explicitly, it is also marked by ka.
    ka が包括として副加語を標示する場合、包括の対照対象は一般には明示されないが、明示される場合にはその対照対象の副加語も ka で標示される。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually ka
    asserts refsing1986
  12. The particle ka has an inclusive basic meaning and helps to enumerate another topic, subject, or object for which known information is repeated.
    助詞kaは包括的な基本的意味を持ち、既知の情報が繰り返されるもう一つの新たな主題（主語／目的語）を列挙する役割を果たす。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ka
    asserts refsing1986
  13. When ka marks an adjunct as being included or excluded with something else, the cross-reference for the inclusion is generally not stated explicitly.
    kaが付加語を他のものに含まれる（否定文では含まれない）ものとして標示する際、包含の照応先は通常、明示されない。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually ka
    asserts refsing1986
  14. If the cross-reference for inclusion is explicitly stated, the adjunct covering that cross-reference will also be marked by ka.
    包含の照応先が明示される場合、その照応先となる付加語もまたkaによって標示される。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ka
    asserts refsing1986
  15. The particle ka appears with negative predicates more often than with positive ones.
    助詞kaは肯定述語よりも否定述語とともに現れる頻度が高い。
    frequency hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ka
    asserts refsing1986
  16. In negative sentences, ka may mark an adjunct as meaning 'not even (included)' or 'not (included) in the least'.
    否定文においてkaは付加語を「〜すら（含まれ）ない」または「少しも（含まれ）ない」という意味で標示することがある。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ka
    asserts refsing1986
  17. The particle ka means 'also/even' and expresses additive addition.
    助詞 ka は「〜も」という意味で、累加を表す。
    form-function ainu generic ka
    asserts sato2008
  18. Before negative expressions such as somo ki 'do not' and eaykap 'cannot', the particle ka tends to be used regularly, often with little of the contrastive nuance of 'also'.
    ka は、somo ki「しない」、eaykap「できない」のような否定の表現の前では規則的に用いられる傾向があり、その場合「〜も」のような特に他のものと対比するという意味はほとんどない場合も多い。
    distribution hokkaido usually ka
    asserts sato2008
  19. The particle ka 'also, even' is a focus particle that affirms an entity in addition to other things.
    ka「〜も」は、他のものに加えてあるものを肯定する「取り立て」の副助詞である。
    form-function hokkaido generic ka
    asserts sato2008
  20. The particle ka appears to express addition/inclusion accompanied by strong emotion, differing subtly from hem.
    ka は hem との違いは微妙だが、強い感情を伴った累加を表すようである。
    form-function generic kahem
    asserts sato2008
  21. ka functions as a focus particle meaning 'also, even'.
    ka は「〜も」を意味する取り立て助詞として機能する。
    form-function ka
    asserts sato2008
seta ka nep ka isam
dog FOC thing FOC not.exist
‘There was neither a dog nor anything at all.’
nakagawa2024:322–323 SAR

hem, hemem, and hene: plain additive and alternative focus 14 claims ·5 sentences

How do hem and hene mark plain additive focus without scalar implications, as in 'both X and Y'?

  1. The secondary particle hem means 'also / as well' and is used when listing similar cases.
    副助詞hemは「〜も」を意味し、同様の事例を並べる時に用いる。
    form-function ainu generic hem
    asserts nakagawa2024
  2. In the Saru dialect, hemem is the reduplicated form of hem, emphasizing the inclusion of a matter even more strongly than hem.
    沙流方言において hemem は hem の重複形であり、その事柄が含まれていることを hem よりもいっそう強調する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru generic hememhem
    reports nakagawa2024
  3. The particle hem is used almost exclusively in the Saru and Chitose dialects.
    hem はほぼ沙流・千歳方言でしか用いられない。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose generic hem
    asserts nakagawa2024
  4. In the Saru and Chitose dialects, hemem is also used, but its occurrences are fewer than those of hem.
    沙流・千歳方言では hemem も使われるが、用例は hem より少ない。
    frequency hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose generic hememhem
    asserts nakagawa2024
  5. The particle hemem is mainly used in the Horobetsu dialect, and is also found in Shiranuka and Abuta.
    hemem はおもに幌別方言で用いられており、白糠・虻田でも見られる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/southwesthokkaido/northeast/kushiro generic hemem
    asserts nakagawa2024
  6. The usage of hemem in the Horobetsu dialect is largely identical to that of hem in the Saru dialect.
    幌別方言での hemem の用法は沙流方言の hem とほぼ同じであると思われる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/horobetsuhokkaido/southwest/saru generic hememhem
    proposes nakagawa2024
  7. The particle hene expresses presenting something as an example, and through repetition it can coordinate similar items in parallel.
    hene は一例として提示するという意味があり、繰り返しによって同様のものを並列的に表すことができる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/saru generic hene
    asserts nakagawa2024
  8. The restrictive postposition hene marks an adjunct as the minimum of something expected, meaning 'at least'.
    限定後置詞heneは付加語を期待される最低限のものとして標示し、「少なくとも」を意味する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic hene
    asserts refsing1986
  9. There is a connection between the postposition hene ('at least') and the adverb hene ('incidentally').
    後置詞hene（「少なくとも」）と副詞hene（「ついでに」）の間には関連がある。
    diachrony hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic hene
    asserts refsing1986
  10. The particle hem also translates as 'also/even', having a meaning close to ka, but ka appears to be accompanied by stronger emotion.
    助詞 hem も「〜も」と訳され ka に近い意味を持つが、ka の方が強い感情を伴った表現であるとされる。
    form-function ainu generic hemka
    asserts sato2008
  11. The particle hene 'or, even' is a focus particle indicating an alternative relationship with other entities.
    hene「〜でも」は、他のものと選択的な関係にあることを示す「取り立て」の副助詞である。
    form-function hokkaido generic hene
    asserts sato2008
  12. The particle he means 'or' or 'even', denoting one alternative among several choices.
    he は「〜でも」「〜か」を意味し、いくつかある選択肢の一つという意味を表す。
    form-function hokkaido generic he
    asserts sato2008
  13. While the particle hem represents simple additive listing ('also'), ka has a more emotional nuance.
    hem が単純な累加であるのに対し、ka はもっと感情的なニュアンスがある。
    form-function hokkaido generic hemka
    proposes sato2008
  14. There is a partially reduplicated form hemem corresponding to hem 'also', but its attested examples are few.
    hem に対応する部分的に重複した形として hemem という形式もあるが、用例は少ない。
    frequency hokkaido generic hemem
    asserts sato2008