Knowledge base · Part XVIII — Information Structure, Sentence-Final Particles, and Minor Classes · this topic as a network
140. Topic and Focus Marking: anak(ne), patek, and ka
Which particles mark topic and focus in Hokkaido Ainu, and what distinctions do they make between thematic and contrastive topics and restrictive, additive, and scalar focus?
The particle neyke marks a topic ('as for'). (Murasaki 2025: 51) The particle ta emphasizes the immediately preceding element to express a wishful meaning like 'if only it were...'. (Nakagawa 2024: 330) The emphatic particle ta can correlate with the sentence-final particle oka. (Nakagawa 2024: 330) tas(i) emphasizes the immediately preceding word or phrase and can correlate with the sentence-final particle nek. (Nakagawa 2024: 330) The emphatic particle meaning 'indeed / especially' is used as esta in the Shizunai dialect and as estap in the Tokachi dialect. (Nakagawa 2024: 330) esta and estap frequently correlate with the sentence-final particle ne. (Nakagawa 2024: 330) As an adverbial particle, kane is used in set expressions such as sekor kane, tapne kane, neno kane, and teeta kane. (Nakagawa 2024: 330) In expressions such as tapne kane, neno kane, and teeta kane, kane was added for metrical and rhythmic reasons to smooth phrasing, resulting in fixed idiomatic expressions without an emphatic or unexpected sense. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 331)
The delimiting-particle (副助詞) layer
What class of particles encodes information structure, and how do they attach to phrases without changing the host's grammatical category?
The restrictive postposition anak functions as a topic or contrast marker, whereas ka functions as an inclusive particle meaning 'also/even/too'. (Refsing 1986: 171) In Shizunai Ainu, the restrictive postpositions other than anak and ka include interrogative he, hene 'at least', pakno 'up to/even', distributive ranke, patek 'only/just', and keray 'only/no more than'. (Refsing 1986: 171) Secondary particles (huku-joshi) attach to various units such as noun phrases, verb phrases, and adverb phrases to add meaning. (Nakagawa 2024: 319) When a secondary particle is attached to a noun phrase or adverb phrase, the whole constituent continues to function as a noun phrase or adverb phrase without changing its function. (Nakagawa 2024: 319) When a secondary particle is attached to a verb phrase, the resulting constituent cannot be used as a verb phrase as is, and must be restored to a verb phrase by adding a verb such as ki 'do' or other auxiliary verbs. (Nakagawa 2024: 319) A conjunctive particle such as kor cannot attach directly to a verb phrase marked by the secondary particle ka without an intervening verb like ki. (Nakagawa 2024: 320) The restrictive postpositions anak and ka appear to exist in all dialects of Ainu. (Refsing 1986: 46) Apart from anak and ka, dialect differences in restrictive postpositions are considerable, resulting in very little overlap between the Saru and Shizunai dialects. (Refsing 1986: 46) Restrictive postpositions may follow all types of nominals, noun expressions, and clitics such as case postpositions, conjunctionalizers, and nominalizers without altering their syntactical role. (Refsing 1986: 79) The two most frequent restrictive postpositions are anak and ka. (Refsing 1986: 171) The two most frequent restrictive postpositions are anak and ka, which roughly correspond to the Japanese focus particles wa and mo, respectively. (Refsing 1986: 171) The particle easir means 'for the first time' or 'only then / precisely'. (Satō 2008: 63) The focus particle hetap can also appear in the form hetap ne, and it seems to be used mainly in oral literature as a somewhat formal expression. (proposed in Satō 2008: 64) The particle konna is predominantly used in oral literature, where it occurs in idiomatic expressions followed mainly by verbs ending in -natara, -atki, or -rototke. (Satō 2008: 65) Before konna, nouns forming content clauses such as ru 'trace/appearance', sir 'state', hum 'sound', or haw 'voice/words' frequently occur. (Satō 2008: 65) There is a particle kan that appears to have a function similar to konna, although examples are extremely rare. (Satō 2008: 66) takup can also be used independently as a quasi-adverbial particle. (Satō 2008: 68) The particle tap is placed after the element to be emphasized to express emphasis. (Satō 2008: 69) tap is followed either by ne 'be' or by an 'exist'; usually ne is used, while an appears to be used especially to indicate exclamation. (Satō 2008: 69) The emphatic particle tasi is placed after the emphasized element. (Satō 2008: 70) ne yakka 'even / or' is an adverbial particle-like form. (Satō 2008: 351) The topic particle anakne and particles of emphasis such as amun and easir can mark objects, other noun phrases, and adverbials. (Shibatani 1990: 38)
anak and anakne: the topic particle
How does the topic particle anak(ne) mark a phrase as the current topic of talk?
The particles anak and anakne mark the topic of a sentence or express contrast. (Nakagawa 2024: 320, Satō 2008: 21) Topical NPs tend to occur clause-initially. (Bugaeva 2012: 472–473) The postposition anak, which is sometimes extended to anakne, singles out an adjunct as the topic of an utterance, and an adjunct marked by anak(ne) in this function is generally placed at the beginning of the sentence. (Refsing 1986: 171) The postposition anak, sometimes extended to anakne, serves to single out an adjunct as the topic of an utterance. (Refsing 1986: 171) An adjunct marked by anak(ne) in topicalizing function is generally positioned at the beginning of the sentence. (Refsing 1986: 171) When anak(ne) marks topic or contrast, it also carries an element of emphasis, and in some instances it functions principally to express pure emphasis. (Refsing 1986: 172) When anak(ne) marks topic or contrast, it also contains an element of emphasis. (Refsing 1986: 173) The particle anak(ne) has a third function of pure emphasis, in which the emphatic element is more dominant than topic or contrast. (Refsing 1986: 173) The particle anakne is an adverbial particle (focus particle) marking topic, similar in function to Japanese wa. (Satō 2008: 60) The particles anak and anakne are used when the speaker makes a new predication about an entity that the hearer is already considered to know (a topic), or when contrasting two matters. (Satō 2008: 62) tane anakne, consisting of tane 'now' and the adverbial particle anakne 'TOP', is often used when comparing two occasions. (Satō 2008: 300) anak functions as a topic particle meaning 'as for'. (Satō 2008: 366) anakne functions as a topic particle meaning 'as for'. (Satō 2008: 366) Ainu possesses the topic particle anak(ne), functioning similarly to the topic markers wa in Japanese and nun in Korean. (Shibatani 1990: 38) The use of the topic particle anak(ne) is not as prevalent in yukar as in colloquial Ainu. (Shibatani 1990: 38)
Form and attachment
What is the form and attachment of the topic particle, and does the choice between anak and anakne affect meaning?
The topic particle anakne clarifies the boundary pause between constituents and can also attach to accusative arguments. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) When anak is placed after a verb, the construction can be restored to a verb phrase by repeating the same verb instead of adding ki. (Nakagawa 2024: 321)
Topic versus contrastive topic
How does the language distinguish a plain topic from a contrastive topic when using the same particle?
The particle anak(ne) can mark an adjunct as contrasting with an explicit or implicit counterpart. (Refsing 1986: 172, 173)
The given-information restriction
What condition restricts the topic particle to referents already known to the hearer, excluding first-mention items?
The particles anak and anakne are difficult to use for something that is brought up as a topic for the first time at that moment, even if the hearer can recognize it immediately within the setting. (proposed in Satō 2008: 62)
Scope and weight compared with Japanese wa
How does the use of the topic particle differ in weight and frequency from Japanese wa, and what nuance does it add?
Although anak(ne) resembles Japanese wa, it is not used as frequently as wa, so substituting wa directly with anak(ne) results in unnatural sentences. (Nakagawa 2024: 320)
Person affixes and independent pronouns
Why can the topic particle not attach to person-agreement prefixes, and how are independent pronouns treated instead?
anak versus anakne and diachrony
Are anak and anakne used identically in texts, or does their frequency differ across dialects and sources?
There is basically no semantic difference between anak and anakne. (Nakagawa 2024: 320) The forms anak and anakne are used interchangeably without an apparent difference in meaning, but in actual frequency anakne occurs nearly twice as often as anak. (Satō 2008: 63)
Restrictive focus: patek and its near-synonyms
How does the particle patek mark restrictive focus, and to which phrase types can it attach?
The restrictive postposition patek indicates the exclusiveness of the preceding adjunct, meaning 'only/just'. (Refsing 1986: 176) The exclusiveness of an action can also be indicated by patek. (Refsing 1986: 176) The particle poka means 'at least' or 'even just'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The particle pateh expresses exclusivity or limitation ('only'). (Murasaki 2025: 52) The particle patek expresses that only the specified entity is included and others are excluded. (Nakagawa 2024: 328) patek possesses high independence and can stand sentence-initially in independent use. (Nakagawa 2024: 328) Whereas postpositional adverbial particles are generally placed after noun phrases, patek also occurs after verb phrases and adverb phrases. (Nakagawa 2024: 328) The author argues that patek should be analyzed as an adverbial particle with independent usage. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 328) While patek is attested widely across various dialects, takup is restricted and only attested in western Hokkaido dialects such as Horobetsu, Saru, and Chitose. (Nakagawa 2024: 329) poka and pokay indicate a minimum standard for realization and are used when demanding realization or in negative contexts where even that minimum cannot be achieved, but cannot be used for events that have already been realized. (Nakagawa 2024: 329) poka is used in comparatively western regions of Hokkaido (Horobetsu, Chitose, Saru, Shizunai, Ishikari, etc.), whereas pokay is used in regions such as Samani, Tokachi, Shiranuka, and Asahikawa. (Nakagawa 2024: 329) Keray indicates not only the exclusiveness of the adjunct it follows, but also adds emphasis ('really'). (Refsing 1986: 176) Keray is not as frequently employed as patek, and is mostly used in connection with quantity nouns. (Refsing 1986: 176) The postposition keray indicates exclusiveness of the preceding adjunct with added emphasis ('really'), is less frequent than patek, and is mostly used in connection with quantity nouns. (Refsing 1986: 176) The particle patek 'only, just' is a focus particle (adverbial particle) that negates other things and emphasizes a particular entity. (Satō 2008: 60) The particle póka 'at least ...' is a focus particle that designates the bare minimum. (Satō 2008: 61) When the element preceding patek is perceived negatively, the form takup 'only' may be added before it. (Satō 2008: 67) The primary meaning of póka is to restrict to a minimum standard and strongly affirm it. (Satō 2008: 68) The particle póka frequently conveys an urgent nuance of 'at least that much'. (Satō 2008: 68) The construction ne yakka 'even' has a meaning similar to póka, but lacks its urgent nuance. (Satō 2008: 68)
Additive and scalar focus: ka, hem, and hene
What particles express additive focus, and how do they differ in implying scalarity or surprise?
The particle otta can be interpreted as an adverbial particle meaning 'even, also', apparently used only for closely paired items such as 'man and woman'. (proposed in Satō 2008: 356) otta functions as a particle meaning 'also, even'. (Satō 2008: 371)
ka: additive, scalar, and NPI-forming
How does the particle ka express additive, scalar, or contrary-to-expectation focus, and how does it form negative polarity items?
The inclusive postposition ka occurs with considerably higher frequency than anak and serves a wide variety of functions. (Refsing 1986: 172, 173) In negative sentences, ka can convey the nuance of not even being included, although it ought to be. (Refsing 1986: 174, 175) In positive sentences, ka means 'too/also' and marks an adjunct as included along with something not explicitly stated. (Refsing 1986: 174, 175) The assertive construction with [verb] ka ki usually conveys that something is included as well, contrary to expectation. (Refsing 1986: 174, 175) The main clause subject can be topicalized and extraposed from the sentence by using restrictive particles such as ka or yak-ka. (Bugaeva 2015: 56) The particle ka ('also, even') is considered to have developed from the quasi-postposition ka ('top, above'), shifting in meaning from 'on top of that' to 'also'. (proposed in Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The particles ka and kay express adding and indicating something in addition to others ('also, even'). (Nakagawa 2024: 322) The form ka is used in Horobetsu, Saru, Chitose, Tokachi, Ishikari, and Sakhalin, whereas kay is used in eastern Hokkaido dialects such as Samani, Tokachi, Shiranuka, and Kushiro. (Nakagawa 2024: 322) In the Tokachi dialect, both forms ka and kay are found. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 322) In some eastern Hokkaido dialects, the particle ka and conjunction particles ending in -ka (such as yakka, korka) appear with final -y as kay, yakkay, and korkay. (Nakagawa & Fukazawa 2022: 8.3) When ka marks an adjunct as inclusive, the cross-reference for the inclusion is generally not stated explicitly, but if stated explicitly, it is also marked by ka. (Refsing 1986: 172) The particle ka has an inclusive basic meaning and helps to enumerate another topic, subject, or object for which known information is repeated. (Refsing 1986: 173) When ka marks an adjunct as being included or excluded with something else, the cross-reference for the inclusion is generally not stated explicitly. (Refsing 1986: 173) If the cross-reference for inclusion is explicitly stated, the adjunct covering that cross-reference will also be marked by ka. (Refsing 1986: 173) The particle ka appears with negative predicates more often than with positive ones. (Refsing 1986: 173) In negative sentences, ka may mark an adjunct as meaning 'not even (included)' or 'not (included) in the least'. (Refsing 1986: 173) The particle ka means 'also/even' and expresses additive addition. (Satō 2008: 25) Before negative expressions such as somo ki 'do not' and eaykap 'cannot', the particle ka tends to be used regularly, often with little of the contrastive nuance of 'also'. (Satō 2008: 60) The particle ka 'also, even' is a focus particle that affirms an entity in addition to other things. (Satō 2008: 61) The particle ka appears to express addition/inclusion accompanied by strong emotion, differing subtly from hem. (Satō 2008: 65) ka functions as a focus particle meaning 'also, even'. (Satō 2008: 369)
hem, hemem, and hene: plain additive and alternative focus
How do hem and hene mark plain additive focus without scalar implications, as in 'both X and Y'?
The secondary particle hem means 'also / as well' and is used when listing similar cases. (Nakagawa 2024: 321) In the Saru dialect, hemem is the reduplicated form of hem, emphasizing the inclusion of a matter even more strongly than hem. (reported in Nakagawa 2024: 322) The particle hem is used almost exclusively in the Saru and Chitose dialects. (Nakagawa 2024: 322) In the Saru and Chitose dialects, hemem is also used, but its occurrences are fewer than those of hem. (Nakagawa 2024: 322) The particle hemem is mainly used in the Horobetsu dialect, and is also found in Shiranuka and Abuta. (Nakagawa 2024: 322) The usage of hemem in the Horobetsu dialect is largely identical to that of hem in the Saru dialect. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 322) The particle hene expresses presenting something as an example, and through repetition it can coordinate similar items in parallel. (Nakagawa 2024: 324) The restrictive postposition hene marks an adjunct as the minimum of something expected, meaning 'at least'. (Refsing 1986: 174) There is a connection between the postposition hene ('at least') and the adverb hene ('incidentally'). (Refsing 1986: 174) The particle hem also translates as 'also/even', having a meaning close to ka, but ka appears to be accompanied by stronger emotion. (Satō 2008: 25) The particle hene 'or, even' is a focus particle indicating an alternative relationship with other entities. (Satō 2008: 61) The particle he means 'or' or 'even', denoting one alternative among several choices. (Satō 2008: 63) While the particle hem represents simple additive listing ('also'), ka has a more emotional nuance. (proposed in Satō 2008: 64) There is a partially reduplicated form hemem corresponding to hem 'also', but its attested examples are few. (Satō 2008: 64)