75. The Transitivizer -ka and Lexical Valency Pairs

Overview 6 sentences

What morphological mechanisms build transitive verb forms from intransitive bases?

Forming suffixes and lexical transitivity pairs 11 claims ·8 sentences· 2 examples

How do forming suffixes create lexical transitivity pairs with vowel or -ke additions?

1. The suffix -ke is employed for both decreasing and increasing valency.
   接尾辞 -ke は結合価の減少と増加の双方に用いられる。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest all -ke
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:500–501 asserts checked
2. Non-productive -V and -ka derive direct causative verbs from non-action intransitive verbs and from bound verb roots, whereas -ke derives causatives exclusively from intransitive verbs.
   非生産的な-Vと-kaは非動作自動詞および動詞語根から直接使役動詞を派生するのに対し、-keによる派生は全て自動詞からの派生である。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/saru all -V-ka-ke
   asserts bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 asserts checked
3. In derivations from intransitive verbs, the causative suffix -V surfaces as -a, -i, -u, -e, or -o, whereas in derivations from bound roots it surfaces as -i, -u, -e, or -o, with -a not occurring.
   自動詞からの派生では使役接尾辞-Vは-a/-i/-u/-e/-oのいずれかになるが、動詞語根からの派生例では-i/-u/-e/-oになり、-aは現れない。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest/saru all -V-a-i-u-e-o
   asserts bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 asserts checked
4. The causative suffixes -ka and -ke attach only to stems consisting of two or more syllables.
   使役接尾辞-kaと-keは、二つ以上の音節からなる語幹にしか付かない。
   distribution ainu all -ka-ke
   asserts bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 asserts checked
5. Causativization of intransitives with -ke derives verbs from (a) state/process verbs, and (b) the singular forms of motion verbs ending in -n.
   -keによる自動詞の使役化には、(a)状態／過程を表す動詞を語基とするものと、(b)-nで終わる移動動詞の単数形から派生されるものとがある。
   distribution ainu all -ke-n
   asserts bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 asserts checked
6. There are no examples of causative derivation from transitive verbs using -ke.
   -keによる他動詞からの使役派生の例は存在しない。
   absence ainu none -ke
   asserts bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 asserts checked
7. The choice among non-productive causative suffixes -V, -ke, and -ka is largely determined according to the semantics of the base verb: -V attaches to process/state verbs and verb roots, -ka to spontaneous processes/actions or internal states/processes, and -ke to processes/states and verbs of motion.
   非生産的な-V、-ke、-kaのいずれの使役接辞が付くかは動詞の意味に従って決まり、-Vは過程／状態動詞や動詞語幹に、-kaは自発的過程／動作や内的状態／過程動詞に、-keは過程／状態や移動動詞に用いられる。
   distribution hokkaido/southwest generic -V-ke-ka
   asserts bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 asserts extracted
8. The only adjunct-reducing suffix is -ke, which marks intransitivity on a small number of verbs expressing violent actions causing change.
   項削減接尾辞は -ke のみであり、変化を引き起こす激しい動作を表す少数の動詞に付いて自動詞性を標示する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic -ke
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:189 asserts anchored
9. The intransitivizing suffix -ke attaches to vowel-final verbs, dropping the stem-final vowel before -ke is added.
   自動詞化接尾辞 -ke は母音末尾動詞に付加され、その際語幹末尾の母音は脱落する。
   alternation hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all -ke
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:189 asserts anchored
10. The transitivizing allomorphs -ke, -ka, and a copy vowel attach to intransitive verbs to form transitive verbs.
    他動詞化異形態 -ke、-ka、および母音は、自動詞に付加されて他動詞を形成する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic -ke-ka
    asserts refsing1986
    • refsing1986:189 asserts anchored
11. Some morphological causatives have a weakened sense of 'make do' and are better termed simply 'transitivization' (e.g. san 'go down from mountains to seashore' vs. san-ke 'bring out').
    「〜させる」という意味が希薄で単に「他動詞化」と呼ぶ方がよいような場合もある（例：san「山から浜へ下がる」に対する san-ke「(手前に)出す」）。
    form-function ainu exists sansan-ke
    asserts sato2008
    • sato2008:237 asserts checked

The suffix -ka: hosts, dialect distribution, and semantics 6 claims ·9 sentences· 3 examples

Which verbs take the suffix -ka as a transitivizer, and what are its dialectal and semantic restrictions?

1. The transitivizing suffix -ka is more common in Northeastern Hokkaido dialects and Sakhalin Ainu than in Southwestern Hokkaido dialects.
   他動詞化接尾辞 -ka は、北海道南西部方言に比べ、北海道北東部方言および樺太アイヌ語においてより一般的である。
   frequency hokkaido/southwesthokkaido/northeastsakhalin comparative -ka
   asserts bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 asserts checked
2. The causative suffix -ka attaches sporadically without clear semantic coherence and its distribution does not constitute an areal dialect feature.
   使役接尾辞 -ka は互いに明確な意味的連関のない動詞に散発的に付加され、その分布は地域的方言特徴とは言えない。
   distribution hokkaido some -ka
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:202 asserts checked
   • contradicts(differs in unresolved): The transitivizing suffix -ka is more common in Northeastern Hokkaido dialects and Sakhalin Ainu than in Southwestern Hokkaido dialects.— Nakagawa rejects treating -ka as having a distinct regional dialect distribution, whereas Bugaeva identifies it as more frequent in Northeastern Hokkaido and Sakhalin.
3. In Southwestern Hokkaido dialects, both -re/-e/-te and -ka causative derivations are recorded for several intransitive verbs without any semantic difference.
   北海道南西部方言においても幾つかの自動詞で、意味的な差のない-re/-e/-teと-kaの両方の派生形が記録されている。
   variation hokkaido/southwest exists -re-e-te-ka
   asserts bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 asserts checked
4. The motion verb rikin 'ascend' takes -ka to form the causative rikin-ka 'raise' in many dialects.
   移動動詞の中でも rikin「上がる」には多くの方言で -ka がついて使役形 rikin-ka「～を上げる」となる。
   membership hokkaido usually rikinrikin-ka-ka
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:202 asserts checked
5. The causative/transitivizing suffix -ka is attached when the stem ends in m or y (e.g. mom -> mom-ka, uhuy -> uhuy-ka), with exceptions ending in other sounds such as kotuk -> kotuk-ka, paraparak -> paraparak-ka, sések -> sések-ka, teyne -> teyne-ka.
   使役/他動詞化接尾辞 -ka は語幹が m, y で終わる場合に付加される（例：mom → mom-ka、uhuy → uhuy-ka；例外：kotuk → kotuk-ka、paraparak → paraparak-ka、sések → sések-ka、teyne → teyne-ka）。
   distribution ainu usually -kamom-kauhuy-kakotuk-kaparaparak-kasések-ka
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:236 asserts checked
6. In Sakhalin Ainu, Murasaki (1978) contrasts the transitive form hosipi-ka 'to send back' with the causative form hosipi-re 'to have someone go home'.
   樺太アイヌ語において、村崎 (1978) は他動詞形式 hosipi-ka「送り返す」と使役形式 hosipi-re「家に帰らせる」を対比させている。
   form-function sakhalin hosipi-kahosipi-re
   reports shibatani1990
   • shibatani1990:48 reports checked

The transitivizer -kar 1 claims ·8 sentences· 1 examples

How does the suffix -kar productively transitivize intransitive verbs without class or shape restrictions?

1. The transitivizing suffix -kar adds an object to an intransitive verb, increasing its valency by +1.
   他動詞を作る接尾辞 -kar は自動詞に目的語を加えて他動詞にするアリティ +1 の接尾辞である。
   form-function hokkaido generic -kar
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:208 asserts checked

Direct causative or forming suffix: the analytical debate 4 claims ·11 sentences

What distinguishes forming suffixes from causative suffixes in the analysis of transitivity pairs?

1. The unproductive causative suffixes -V, -ke, and -ka mark direct causation.
   非生産的な使役接尾辞 -V、-ke、-ka は直接使役を表す。
   form-function ainu all -V-ke-ka
   asserts bugaeva2014, bugaevakobayashi2022
   • bugaeva2014 asserts checked
   • bugaevakobayashi2022:15.6 asserts checked
2. The less productive transitive derivations in -V, -ke, and -ka may syntactically and functionally be analyzed as causatives.
   非生産的な他動詞派生接尾辞 -V、-ke、-ka は、統語論および機能の観点から使役としても分析できる。
   analysis ainu all -V-ke-ka
   proposes bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 proposes checked
3. In Southwestern Hokkaido dialects, less productive transitive derivations in -V, -ke, and -ka can syntactically and functionally be regarded as causatives.
   北海道南西部方言において、-V、-ke、-ka による非生産的な他動詞派生は統語的・機能的に使役とみなすことができる。
   analysis hokkaido/southwest all -V-ke-ka
   asserts bugaeva2012
   • bugaeva2012:484–485 asserts checked
   • refines(differs in scope): The less productive transitive derivations in -V, -ke, and -ka may syntactically and functionally be analyzed as causatives.— Asserted specifically for Southwestern Hokkaido dialects as a refinement of the broader proposal for Ainu as a whole.
4. The non-productive causative markers -V, -ke, and -ka all derive direct causative verbs and form a closed set of 158 items in the 387-verb sample: -V (111), -ka (38), and -ke (9).
   非生産的な使役標識である-V、-ke、-kaは全て直接使役動詞を派生し、387動詞のサンプル中では-V（111個）、-ka（38個）、-ke（9個）という閉じたセットを成す。
   membership hokkaido/southwest/saru all -V-ke-ka
   asserts bugaeva2014
   • bugaeva2014 asserts anchored

Attachment to the base stem: rikinka and the absence of rikipka 8 sentences

How does reduplication interact with stem alternation in motion verbs like rikin?