Knowledge base · Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation · this topic as a network
75. The Transitivizer -ka and Lexical Valency Pairs
How does the language form transitive verbs from intransitive bases using suffixes and lexical pairs?
Forming suffixes and lexical transitivity pairs
How do forming suffixes create lexical transitivity pairs with vowel or -ke additions?
The suffix -ke is employed for both decreasing and increasing valency. (Bugaeva 2012: 500–501) Non-productive -V and -ka derive direct causative verbs from non-action intransitive verbs and from bound verb roots, whereas -ke derives causatives exclusively from intransitive verbs. (Bugaeva 2014) In derivations from intransitive verbs, the causative suffix -V surfaces as -a, -i, -u, -e, or -o, whereas in derivations from bound roots it surfaces as -i, -u, -e, or -o, with -a not occurring. (Bugaeva 2014) The causative suffixes -ka and -ke attach only to stems consisting of two or more syllables. (Bugaeva 2014) Causativization of intransitives with -ke derives verbs from (a) state/process verbs, and (b) the singular forms of motion verbs ending in -n. (Bugaeva 2014) There are no examples of causative derivation from transitive verbs using -ke. (Bugaeva 2014) The choice among non-productive causative suffixes -V, -ke, and -ka is largely determined according to the semantics of the base verb: -V attaches to process/state verbs and verb roots, -ka to spontaneous processes/actions or internal states/processes, and -ke to processes/states and verbs of motion. (Bugaeva 2014) The only adjunct-reducing suffix is -ke, which marks intransitivity on a small number of verbs expressing violent actions causing change. (Refsing 1986: 189) The intransitivizing suffix -ke attaches to vowel-final verbs, dropping the stem-final vowel before -ke is added. (Refsing 1986: 189) The transitivizing allomorphs -ke, -ka, and a copy vowel attach to intransitive verbs to form transitive verbs. (Refsing 1986: 189) Some morphological causatives have a weakened sense of 'make do' and are better termed simply 'transitivization' (e.g. san 'go down from mountains to seashore' vs. san-ke 'bring out'). (Satō 2008: 237)
The suffix -ka: hosts, dialect distribution, and semantics
Which verbs take the suffix -ka as a transitivizer, and what are its dialectal and semantic restrictions?
The transitivizing suffix -ka is more common in Northeastern Hokkaido dialects and Sakhalin Ainu than in Southwestern Hokkaido dialects. (Bugaeva 2014) The causative suffix -ka attaches sporadically without clear semantic coherence and its distribution does not constitute an areal dialect feature. (Nakagawa 2024: 202) In Southwestern Hokkaido dialects, both -re/-e/-te and -ka causative derivations are recorded for several intransitive verbs without any semantic difference. (Bugaeva 2014) The motion verb rikin 'ascend' takes -ka to form the causative rikin-ka 'raise' in many dialects. (Nakagawa 2024: 202) The causative/transitivizing suffix -ka is attached when the stem ends in m or y (e.g. mom -> mom-ka, uhuy -> uhuy-ka), with exceptions ending in other sounds such as kotuk -> kotuk-ka, paraparak -> paraparak-ka, sések -> sések-ka, teyne -> teyne-ka. (Satō 2008: 236) In Sakhalin Ainu, Murasaki (1978) contrasts the transitive form hosipi-ka 'to send back' with the causative form hosipi-re 'to have someone go home'. (reported in Shibatani 1990: 48)
The transitivizer -kar
How does the suffix -kar productively transitivize intransitive verbs without class or shape restrictions?
The transitivizing suffix -kar adds an object to an intransitive verb, increasing its valency by +1. (Nakagawa 2024: 208)
Direct causative or forming suffix: the analytical debate
What distinguishes forming suffixes from causative suffixes in the analysis of transitivity pairs?
The unproductive causative suffixes -V, -ke, and -ka mark direct causation. (Bugaeva 2014, Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.6) The less productive transitive derivations in -V, -ke, and -ka may syntactically and functionally be analyzed as causatives. (proposed in Bugaeva 2014) In Southwestern Hokkaido dialects, less productive transitive derivations in -V, -ke, and -ka can syntactically and functionally be regarded as causatives. (Bugaeva 2012: 484–485) The non-productive causative markers -V, -ke, and -ka all derive direct causative verbs and form a closed set of 158 items in the 387-verb sample: -V (111), -ka (38), and -ke (9). (Bugaeva 2014)