Knowledge base · Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation · this topic as a network

76. Causee Marking, Ditransitive and Double Causatives

How does causativization create three-place predicates, what marks the causee, and how are double causatives formed?

The causee as object

When a causative verb is derived from an intransitive, what grammatical role does the former intransitive subject take?

Causative verbs derived from intransitives with -V, -ka, or -ke promote the original S argument to O while introducing a new subject argument A. (Bugaeva 2014)

Causative of a transitive: the three-place frame

In a causative derived from a transitive verb, what are the grammatical roles of the new causer, the causee, and the original patient?

Causativization of transitive (two-argument) verbs yields a double-object construction in Ainu. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4, 15.6) In causativization of transitive verbs with -V or -ka, the original object is retained and the original subject becomes a causee object, forming a double-object construction. (Bugaeva 2014) Although causativization of transitive verbs creates double-object constructions, overt expression of both objects simultaneously is avoided, with one typically omitted coreferentially. (Bugaeva 2014)

Person indexing: causee priority and secundative alignment

How does the language index two objects in a three-place causative verb given a two‑slot ceiling for person affixes?

Verbs of giving and receiving express their arguments by combining portmanteau personal affixes with three-argument verb stems such as konte 'give' or koore 'hand over'. (Murasaki 2025: 28) When kore 'give' occurs without a person affix for the theme argument, the theme interpretation is recovered pragmatically via the verb's trivalent frame. (Satō 2023) On the three-argument verb kore 'give', only the recipient is indexed by object personal affixes, and the theme normally cannot be indexed. (Satō 2023) On the three-argument verb omare 'put into', only the moved theme is indexed by object personal affixes, and the locative goal cannot be indexed. (Satō 2023)

Double causatives

How does the language form double causatives, and what allomorphy rules apply at each step?

Ainu permits double causatives, formed by adding a causative suffix to an already causativized transitive verb stem. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4, 15.6) Double causatives and causatives formed from bivalent transitives take two unmarked objects that share similar encoding and behavioral properties. (Bugaeva 2012: 486–487) The suffix -re/-e/-te can attach to all direct causative verbs to function as a secondary indirect causative marker. (Bugaeva 2014) In double causatives, two overt objects never appear simultaneously in actual clauses due to the omission of topical noun phrases and avoidance of co-occurring pronouns. (Bugaeva 2014) The form iyomare-an expresses the meaning 'we pour liquor for someone'. (Satō 2023)

Combinatorial limits and related morphology

What are the combinatorial limits on co‑occurrence of causative with other morphology such as applicatives and incorporated objects?

Direct causee objects can undergo noun incorporation and antipassivization, whereas indirect causee objects cannot. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4)