Knowledge base · Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation · this topic as a network

77. The Permissive/Sociative Causative -yar

How does the language express permissive or sociative causation, and how does this contrast with the productive causative?

25 sentences from 14 sources · every sentence names the pages it rests on

The sociative prefixes uko- and uwe- originate from combinations of the reciprocal prefix u- with applicatives ko- and e-, and synchronically function as single valency-retaining markers meaning 'together'. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4) Sociative derivations with uko- are much more frequent than those with uwe-. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4) Sociative derivations from 1-argument verbs are exclusively subject-oriented, whereas those from 2-argument verbs can be either subject- or object-oriented depending on context. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4) The sociative meaning 'together' can also be expressed by combining the reciprocal prefix u- with causative suffixes -re/-e/-te or -ka, mostly on intransitive bases. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4)

Form and allomorphy

What phonological conditions determine the allomorphs of the permissive/sociative causative suffix?

The causative suffix -yar is realized as -yar after stems ending in vowels and as -ar after stems ending in consonants. (Bugaeva 2022: 20.6) The causative suffix allomorph -yar occurs after sounds other than r, while -ar occurs after r. (Nakagawa 2024: 201) In the Ishikari dialect, the suffix -yar attaches to the causative form marked by -re/-te and functions as a double causative expressing that the causer makes someone cause the causee to do something. (reported in Shibatani 1990: 50)

The unexpressed causee

Is the causee argument expressed or suppressed in permissive/sociative causative constructions?

The indefinite causative suffix -yar/-ar retains the valency of the base verb because the causee cannot be overtly expressed as an NP or indexed on the verb. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4, 15.6) The indefinite causative suffix -yar/-ar does not change verbal valency. (Bugaeva 2012: 484–485) The indefinite causative suffix -yar/-ar does not affect valency because the causee is indefinite and cannot be introduced as an argument. (Bugaeva 2012: 500–501) The indefinite causative in -yar/-ar is often used for politeness reasons to avoid mentioning the causee directly. (reported in Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.6) The causative suffix -yar expresses plurality of the causee, and after stems ending in r, it drops y to become -ar. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) Affixes that do not change arity include affiliative-equivalent nominal prefixes, adverbial prefixes, the causative suffix -yar, and the plural suffix -pa. (Nakagawa 2024: 137) The causative suffix -yar / -ar has an arity of 0; the original subject is omitted and the causer becomes the new subject, forming a causative that does not express the causee. (Nakagawa 2024: 201) In causative verbs formed with -yar, the causee is non-specific ('anyone') and does not become a syntactic object. (Nakagawa 2024: 432) Depending on the verb, the agent/causee of the base verb in a -yar/-ar causative can be specified using relational phrases such as or peka, or un, or eun. (Nakagawa 2024: 433) The suffix -(y)ar is a suppletive plural causative suffix that marks plurality of the causee. (Shibatani 1990: 48) The causee deriving from an intransitive subject does not trigger the plural causee suffix -yar, being treated like the direct object of a transitive clause. (Shibatani 1990: 50)

tuyma no new ka a=korar ka korayniwkes

far even COMP also 4=marry.off also feel.cannot.do

‘I felt I couldn't have her married off far away.’

Biratori Ainu oral literature 1969 · SAR

eun a=nuyar.

to 4.A=hear-CAUS

‘I had it heard / I reported (it) to [them].’

Biratori Ainu oral literature 1969 · SAR

Readings: indefinite, permissive, and sociative

What semantic readings does the permissive/sociative causative suffix allow?

The causative suffix -yar is used to avoid specific mention of the agent. (Refsing 1986: 187) The indefinite causative suffix -yar/-ar encodes only indirect causation. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4) The indefinite causative suffix -yar ~ -ar adds a causer as the new subject but removes the original subject from the clause, leaving the verb's arity unchanged (+0). (Nakagawa 2024: 432) Ainu possesses a causative suffix -yar that actively indicates that the direct agent/causee of the action is an unspecified person. (Satō 2008: 250) The plural causative suffix -(y)ar is used when the causee is indeterminate and not overtly expressed, without increasing the valency of the verb. (reported in Shibatani 1990: 50) The causative suffix -(y)ar is used as an honorific causative expression directing respect toward the causee. (Shibatani 1990: 50)

a=en=kopisi p anakne opitta ku=ye wa ku=nu-yar

4.A=1SG.O=ask NMLZ TOP all 1SG.A=say CONJ 1SG.A=hear-CAUS

‘Everything I was asked I told in full — I made it all known.’

Nakagawa 2024: 432 · SAR

ipe-yar=an ro

eat-CAUS=4.S HORT

‘Let's have (them) eat.’

Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: §4.3.1 · SAR

Contrast with the productive causative

How does the permissive/sociative causative differ from the productive causative in argument structure?

Unlike the causative suffix -re, the causative suffix -yar inherently includes the meaning of an unspecified causee and therefore cannot take a separate noun phrase indicating the causee as an object. (Satō 2008: 251)

Corpus profile

How frequently does the permissive/sociative causative suffix occur in the Hokkaido corpus?

hokure a=macihi oripakno pirkano suke wa ipeyar.

come.on 4.A=poss.wife humbly well cook CONJ eat-CAUS

‘Quickly, my wife — cook properly and neatly, and feed [them].’

Biratori Ainu oral literature 1969 · SAR