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A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Knowledge base · Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation

73. Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation: Overview

What valency-changing operations does the language have, and how do they combine and order on the verb?

この言語にはどのような結合価変換操作があり、それらは動詞上でどのように組み合わさり、どのような順序で現れるのか。

The architecture of the valency-changing system: the inventory of operations (causatives, the e-/ko-/o- applicatives, antipassive, reflexive, reciprocal, middle/anticausative, and noun incorporation) and how they compose, stack, and order on the verb.

candidate topic from the first edition topic:valency/valency-voice-overview read this topic as text

42claims
88statements
25sources
10examples
6sections
70first-edition sentences

Local network

The chapter, its sections, the sources it cites, the chapters it cross-references, the forms it mentions most, and the claims grouped under it with the sources that assert, propose, doubt or reject each.

Related chapters

Forms mentioned

e- 4o- 4=an 3ci= 3ci- 3i- 3si- 3a= 2-kar 2-re 2ko- 2yay- 2u- 2=as 1pukusa 1pukusa a=ta 1pukusa-ta=an 1e= 1-te 1-e 1r 1-V 1-ke 1-ka 1-yar 1huraye 1ku 1i-huraye 1i-ku 1i= 1*hi 1*ihi 1isam 1*sam 1yay-rayke 1si-rayke 1u-tures-kor 1u-mina-re 1uko- 1uwe- 1

Claims

A claim is one proposition; under it stand the statements of each source, with the stance that source takes. Claims are grouped by a model from the extracted statements and carry that status until reviewed.

  1. Ainu has idiomatic verb expressions consisting of two words that form a fixed combination with a meaning beyond the sum of the components, such as kes anpa 'chase' and kasi opas 'go/come to rescue'.
    アイヌ語には、kes anpa「〜を追いかける」や kasi opas「〜を救助しに行く/来る」のように、2語が固定して結びつき各語の意味の総和以上の慣用的意味を表す動詞表現がある。
    existence ainu exists kes anpakasi opas
    asserts sato2008

Sections

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The valency system as an arity calculus 2 claims ·10 sentences· 1 examples

How does derivational morphology determine the argument structure of the verb word?

  1. Verbs can shift between transitive and intransitive categories through the addition or removal of verbal prefixes or suffixes.
    動詞は、1つ以上の動詞接頭辞や接尾辞の付加または除去によって、他動詞と自動詞のカテゴリー間を往復して移行させることができる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic
    asserts refsing1986
  2. The valency of an Ainu verb is inherently fixed for each lexical base, but can be systematically increased or decreased through morphological devices such as affixes.
    アイヌ語の動詞の結合価は各動詞について決まっているが、接辞のような文法的な手段によって規則正しく動詞の結合価を増やしたり減らしたりできる。
    form-function ainu all
    asserts sato2023b
numan hekaci cep koyki
yesterday boy fish catch
‘The boy caught fish yesterday.’
ijas2023 constructed

Inventory of operations 13 claims ·9 sentences

What is the complete set of valency-changing and voice operations, and what is each one's effect on arguments?

  1. Verb prefixes are divided into two main classes: valency-affecting prefixes that influence the number of predicate adjuncts, and adjunct-neutral prefixes that do not.
    動詞接頭辞は、述語の連用修飾語（付属語）の数に影響を与える結合価変化接頭辞と、影響を与えない連用修飾語中立接頭辞の2大グループに大別される。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  2. Adjunct-neutral verb prefixes comprise various intensifying prefixes such as ar-, si-, toy-, pit-, sir-, and ru-.
    連用修飾語中立の動詞接頭辞には、ar-、si-、toy-、pit-、sir-、ru- などの各種強調接頭辞が含まれる。
    membership hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all ar-si-toy-pit-sir-ru-
    asserts refsing1986
  3. Valency-affecting verb prefixes are subdivided into adjunct-reducing prefixes (yay-, u-, si-, and i-) and adjunct-increasing prefixes (e-, ko-, and o-).
    結合価に影響を与える動詞接頭辞は、連用修飾語減少接頭辞（yay-、u-、si-、i-）と連用修飾語増加接頭辞（e-、ko-、o-）の2種に細分される。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all yay-u-si-i-e-ko-
    asserts refsing1986
  4. Ainu has two devices for increasing verbal valency (applicatives and causatives) and five devices for decreasing valency (reflexive, reciprocal, antipassive, anticausative, and noun incorporation).
    アイヌ語には価を増大させる2つの手段（適用補語および使役）と、価を減少させる5つの手段（再帰、相互、逆使役［反受動］、反使役、および名詞抱合）がある。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest all e-ko-o--re-e-te
    asserts bugaeva2012
  5. Ainu features a rich inventory of voice categories.
    アイヌ語は豊かなヴォイス体系を特徴とする。
    existence ainu
    asserts bugaeva2022
  6. Verb prefixes comprise three types: intensifying prefixes, adjunct-reducing prefixes (transitive to intransitive), and adjunct-increasing prefixes (intransitive to transitive).
    動詞接頭辞には3種類あり、強意接頭辞、副加語削減接頭辞（他動詞から自動詞へ）、副加語増加接頭辞（自動詞から他動詞へ）である。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  7. The prefixes ar- and si- attach to stative verbs to intensify their meaning.
    接頭辞 ar- および si- は状態動詞に付いてその意味を強調する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ar-si-
    asserts refsing1986
  8. The prefix ru- is used with stative verbs to indicate a slight degree.
    接頭辞 ru- は状態動詞に付加され、わずかな程度を示す。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ru-
    asserts refsing1986
  9. When the intransitive verb ray 'die' is used as a verb prefix, it indicates a violent degree.
    自動詞 ray「死ぬ」が動詞接頭辞として用いられると、激しい程度を表す。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic rayray-
    asserts refsing1986
  10. The prefixes toy- and pit- both indicate an action of strength, and generally appear in combination with the prefix ko-.
    接頭辞 toy- と pit- はともに強い動作を表し、通常は動作が対象に向かうことを示す接頭辞 ko- と結合して現れる。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually toy-pit-ko-
    asserts refsing1986
  11. The prefix sir- indicates the suddenness of an action and is generally followed by ko- to indicate that the action is directed towards a goal.
    接頭辞 sir- は動作の急激さを示し、動作が目標に向けられていることを表すために通常 ko- が後続する。
    distribution hokkaido/southwest/shizunai usually sir-ko-
    asserts refsing1986
  12. Verb suffixes can be subdivided into those that have no influence upon the number of adjuncts, transitivizing and causativizing suffixes that allow the predicate to take one extra adjunct, and intransitivizing suffixes that decrease the number of adjuncts.
    動詞接尾辞は、付加語の数に影響を与えないもの、述語が余分な付加語を1つ取れるようにする他動詞化・使役化接尾辞、および反対の効果をもつ自動詞化接尾辞に分類できる。
    analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  13. Voice, reciprocal, and reflexive markers, along with other derivational functions, are predominantly marked on verbs by affixes.
    態、相互、再帰、およびその他の派生機能は、動詞上で主に接辞によって標示される。
    form-function ainu generic
    asserts shibatani1990

Valency-increasing morphology 3 claims ·11 sentences· 3 examples

How is causativization expressed morphologically, and what allomorphs does the causative marker take?

  1. The nominal prefixes e- ('head of') and o- ('bottom/rear of') attach to transitive verbs without reducing their valency or arity.
    名詞的接頭辞 e-（頭）および o-（尻）は他動詞に付加されても動詞全体の結合価（アリティ）を減らさない。
    form-function ainu all e-o-
    asserts bugaevakobayashi2022, nakagawa2024
  2. Ainu has morphological and lexical causative expressions that increase valency.
    アイヌ語には結合価を増やす形態的・語彙的な使役表現が数多くある。
    existence ainu all
    asserts bugaeva2014
  3. The applicative prefixes e-, o-, and ko-, as well as the causative suffixes -(r)e, -te, and -(y)ar, all produce an increase in valence and yield morphologically transitive constructions.
    使動接頭辞e-、o-、ko-、および使役接尾辞-(r)e、-te、-(y)arはすべて価を増加させ、その結果の構文はすべて形態論的に他動詞となる。
    form-function ainu all e-o-ko--(r)e-te-(y)ar
    asserts shibatani1990
matkaci sinot
girl play
‘The girl played.’
nakagawa2024:431 SAR Nakagawa ex. 954, after Tamura 1984
hapo matkaci sinot-te
mother girl play-CAUS
‘Mother made the girl play.’
nakagawa2024:431 SAR Nakagawa ex. 954′
sirkorkamuy emus e-tuye
standing.tree sword APPL-cut
‘He cut a standing tree with a sword.’
nakagawa2024:193 SAR Nakagawa ex. 173, after Monbetsu-chō 1969: 237

Valency-decreasing and rearranging voices 9 claims ·20 sentences· 4 examples

How are valency-decreasing and rearranging voices such as reflexive, reciprocal, middle, and antipassive marked?

  1. Adjunct-reducing prefixes supply the missing direct or indirect object of the predicate, preventing transitive verbs from taking an external object and rendering them intransitive or semitransitive.
    連用修飾語（付属語）減少接頭辞は述語の欠けた直接または間接目的語自体を供給するため、他動詞に付加されると外的目的語を取れなくなり、自動詞または半他動詞（準他動詞）となる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all
    asserts refsing1986
  2. The lexical noun-origin prefixes he- ('head') and ho- ('bottom') attach immediately before the verbal base and reduce verb valency by one.
    名詞起源の語彙接頭辞he-（「頭」）およびho-（「尻」）は動詞語幹の直前に現れ、動詞の結合価を1つ減らす。
    form-function ainu all he-ho-
    asserts bugaevakobayashi2022
  3. Sakhalin Ainu has a variety of derivational affixes that modify valency or form reflexive and pluractional stems.
    樺太アイヌ語には、目的語の数を変えたり、再帰形や多回形などを作ったりする多様な派生接辞がある。
    existence sakhalin exists ko-'uko-yayko--te'e-yay-
    asserts murasaki2025
  4. Nominal prefixes he-, ho-, u-, yay-, si-, ci-, and i- attach primarily to transitive verbs and reduce their arity by one.
    名詞的接頭辞 he-、ho-、u-、yay-、si-、ci-、i- は主として他動詞に接頭し、項の数を1つ減らす（アリティ -1）。
    form-function ainu all he-ho-u-yay-si-ci-
    asserts nakagawa2024
  5. There is only one adjunct-reducing suffix, which turns transitive verbs into intransitive verbs.
    他動詞を自動詞に変える副加語削減接尾辞は1つしか存在しない。
    existence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai exists
    asserts refsing1986
  6. The suffix -ke is the only adjunct-reducing suffix, marking intransitivity on a small set of vowel-final verbs of violent action causing change, where the stem-final vowel is dropped before -ke.
    接尾辞 -ke は項削減接尾辞（adjunct-reducing suffix）の唯一のものであり、変化をもたらす暴力的な動作を表す少数の母音末尾動詞において語幹末母音を脱落させて自動詞性を標示する。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai all -ke
    asserts refsing1986
  7. When noun incorporation occurs, verbal valency usually decreases and the resulting complex verb becomes intransitive.
    名詞抱合が起きると、動詞の価項数は通常減少し、複合動詞全体は自動詞になる。
    form-function ainu usually
    asserts satoni2022
  8. Noun incorporation and certain verbal prefixes have the effect of decreasing the verb's valence.
    名詞抱合および特定の動詞接頭辞の使用は、動詞の結合価を減少させる効果を持つ。
    form-function ainu generic
    asserts shibatani1990
  9. The generalized object prefix i-, the reciprocal u-, and the reflexive prefixes yay- and si- trigger a morphological change whereby transitive personal affixes are replaced by intransitive personal affixes.
    一般目的語接頭辞i-、相互接頭辞u-、再帰接頭辞yay-およびsi-はいずれも、他動詞人称接辞が自動詞人称接辞に交替するという形態論的変化をもたらす。
    alternation ainu all i-u-yay-si-
    asserts shibatani1990
i-ri=an wa or-o wa sini=an na
ANTIP-skin=4.S CONJ place-POSS from rest=4.S FIN
‘I will skin the catch and then rest.’
bugaevakobayashi2022:§4.2.3 SHI Shizunai Board of Education 1991–1995, O0130054_6; Handbook ex. 24b
nea nispa utar u-koyki kor oka siri a=nukar
that rich.man PL RECP-attack while exist.PL appearance 4.A=see
‘I saw those rich men fighting each other.’
bugaevakobayashi2022:§4.2.1 SAR Nakagawa corpus K8010281UP.168; Handbook ex. 11a
aynu kam ka upas ka ta ci-cari
human flesh even snow even LOC RES-scatter
‘Human flesh and snow too lay scattered on the ground.’
nakagawa2024:189 CHI Nakagawa ex. 167
seta or wa aynu a=kupapa
dog place from person 4.A=bite
‘A person was bitten by a dog.’
nakagawa2024:428 SAR Nakagawa ex. 945″

Noun incorporation and wordhood 13 claims ·11 sentences· 1 examples

How does noun incorporation operate, and what does it reveal about the wordhood of the verb?

  1. Ainu can relatively freely form compound verbs that semantically correspond to a whole clause by incorporating an object or subject noun or an adverbial verb into the verb root along with various affixes.
    アイヌ語は動詞語根に様々な接辞がつくことに加え、目的語や主語にあたる名詞、副詞的役割を果たす動詞などを取り込んで、意味的にひとつの文にあたる複合動詞を比較的自由に作ることができる。
    existence ainu generic
    asserts nakagawa2024
  2. A connected verb consists of a noun and a verb that act either as a single word or as a two-word combination, functioning as a transitive verb even when forming one word with an incorporated object.
    連動詞は名詞と動詞が対になり、全体でひとつの動詞としても2語の組み合わせとしても動詞として働き、他動詞が目的語を抱合した形で1語になった場合にも他動詞として機能する。
    form-function ainu all
    asserts nakagawa2024
  3. In noun incorporation, the resulting verb often denotes a conventionalized action and frequently exhibits a specialized meaning.
    抱合の場合は、動詞全体が一つの慣用的な行為を表すことが多く、場合によってはかなり特殊化した意味を示すことも少なくない。
    form-function hokkaido usually
    asserts sato2008
  4. When the specific properties or quantities of a noun are at issue, independent noun phrases rather than noun incorporation are used.
    名詞の性状（大小、善悪、多少等）がより具体的に問題にされるような場面では、抱合を用いた表現ではなく、独立の名詞を用いた表現が用いられる。
    distribution hokkaido usually
    asserts sato2008
  5. Cases where both an independent noun phrase expression and a corresponding incorporated noun-verb compound reliably coexist are very rare in Ainu.
    独立の名詞を用いた表現と抱合を用いた表現の両方が確実に存在するという例は、実際には非常に少ない。
    frequency hokkaido measured ape ariape-aricep koykicep-koykiinaw keinaw-ke
    asserts sato2008
  6. When a noun is incorporated into a transitive verb, the transitive verb is normally converted into an intransitive verb.
    名詞が他動詞に抱合されると、通常は他動詞は自動詞に転換される。
    form-function hokkaido usually
    asserts sato2008
  7. When a noun is incorporated into a verb, the number of nominal arguments the verb can take is normally reduced by one.
    名詞が一つ動詞に抱合されると、動詞が取り得る名詞の項数は通常一つ減少する。
    form-function hokkaido usually
    asserts sato2008
  8. When a three-place transitive verb incorporates an object noun, its valency decreases by one, but since it can still take one object, it remains a transitive verb (two-place verb).
    他動詞でも三項動詞の場合は、抱合によって項数が一つ減っても目的語を一つ取れる二項動詞なので原則的には自動詞にはならず、他動詞のままである。
    distribution hokkaido usually
    asserts sato2008
  9. Noun incorporation exists in Ainu as a productive word-formation process in which a noun stem is compounded with a verb stem to form a compound verb.
    アイヌ語には、名詞語幹が動詞語幹と複合して1つの複合動詞を形成する生産的な語形成手段として名詞抱合が存在する。
    existence ainu generic
    asserts satoni2022
  10. Ainu possesses a pseudo-incorporation (quasi-incorporation) construction that has the properties of a verb phrase but semantically behaves like noun incorporation.
    アイヌ語には、動詞句の特徴を持ちながら意味論的には名詞抱合と非常に類似した性質を示す疑似抱合（準抱合）構文が存在する。
    existence ainu exists
    asserts satoni2022
  11. Pseudo-incorporation in Ainu occurs as an alternative strategy when noun incorporation is blocked by grammatical restrictions.
    アイヌ語の疑似抱合は、制約によって名詞抱合が不可能になった際の代替手段として生じる。
    distribution ainu generic
    asserts satoni2022
  12. Noun incorporation in Ainu is highly lexical in nature and typically denotes a nameworthy or institutionalized event in Ainu culture.
    アイヌ語の名詞抱合はその基本的性質において極めて語彙的であり、通常、アイヌ文化において名付けるに値する、あるいは「制度化された」出来事を表す。
    analysis ainu usually
    asserts satoni2022
  13. Noun incorporation in Ainu is classified into four major types: Object NI (85.9%), Intransitive (Natural Force/Phenomenon) Subject NI (6.8%), Intransitive (Possessor-Requiring) Subject NI (5.6%), and Transitive (Natural Force/Phenomenon) Subject NI (1.7%).
    アイヌ語の名詞抱合は、目的語抱合（85.9％）、自動詞（自然力・現象）主語抱合（6.8％）、自動詞（所有者要求）主語抱合（5.6％）、他動詞（自然力・現象）主語抱合（1.7％）の4大タイプに分類される。
    frequency ainu measured
    asserts satoni2022
pet or ta ran=an wa suy cep-koyki=an rok ayne
river place LOC descend.SG=4.S CONJ again fish-catch=4.S PL.PRF then
‘I went down to the river and caught fish again, and at last …’
ilcaa1976 SAR Kawakami Matsuko, uwepeker 13; ILCAA materials aa-irc/016#14

Stacking, ordering, and the verb-word template 1 claims ·9 sentences· 1 examples

What is the linear order of person markers, valency prefixes, root, suffixes, and causative in the verb word?

  1. The interaction of applicative formation and noun incorporation often cancels out the valency-changing effects on the basic verb morphologically or in terms of the number of bare nominal arguments in the clause.
    使動構文の形成と名詞抱合の相互作用は、形態論的あるいは節内の裸名詞項の数において、基本動詞に対する価変更効果をしばしば相殺する。
    analysis ainu generic
    asserts shibatani1990
usa-oruspe a=e-yay-ko-tuyma-si-ram-suy-pa
various-rumor 4.A=APPL-REFL-APPL-far-REFL.POSS-heart-sway-PL
‘We keep swaying our hearts afar over various rumours.’
shibatani1990:73bugaeva2014 HK after Chiri 1936: 169; Shibatani ex. 131 / Bugaeva ex. 1