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A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu

Knowledge base · Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation

80. The ko- Applicative

What applicative construction in Hokkaido Ainu promotes goal/recipient, comitative, and adversative obliques to object?

北海道アイヌ語において、目標/受益者、共格、逆益の斜格を目的語に昇格させる適用構文は何か？

The ko- applicative promoting goal/recipient, comitative and adversative ('to/with/against') obliques to object.

candidate topic from the first edition topic:valency/applicative-ko read this topic as text

30claims
65statements
16sources
8examples
7sections
51first-edition sentences

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Forms mentioned

ko- 29e- 7o- 5tura 2ko-yayirayke 2ruska 2i-ruska 2ko-i-ruska 2i- 2ko-e-ikka 2sirepa 2pa 2kotan 2kopan 2pan 2ko-nu 1nu 1wa 1eun 1hopuni 1ko-hopuni 1hosipi 1ko-hosipi 1e-yayirayke 1yayirayke 1ek 1kohopuni 1kanto kotor 1o(r)- 1ko-ruska 1yay-ko-ruska 1si-ko-i-ruska 1i-ruska-re 1ko-i-ruska-re 1ko-e- 1e-ko- 1isoytak 1e-ko-isoytak 1ikka 1e-ikka 1

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A claim is one proposition; under it stand the statements of each source, with the stance that source takes. Claims are grouped by a model from the extracted statements and carry that status until reviewed.

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Overview 1 claims ·6 sentences· 1 examples

How does the applicative prefix in Hokkaido Ainu change the number of arguments of a verb?

  1. The prefix ko- indicates the direction or goal of an action, or the object affected by the action, and is the prefix among the three adjunct-increasing prefixes that most often carries an extra adjunct explicitly.
    接頭辞 ko- は動作の方向や目標、あるいは動作の影響を受ける対象を表し、3つの付加詞増大接頭辞の中で明示的な付加詞を伴うことが最も多い。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai generic ko-
    asserts refsing1986
kanto kotor a=ko-hopuni
sky vicinity 4.A=APPL-fly.up
‘I flew up toward the sky.’
nakagawa2024:193 CHI Nakagawa ex. 174

Semantic roles of the applied object 5 claims ·8 sentences

What semantic roles can the applied object take in the Hokkaido Ainu applicative construction?

  1. The prefix ko- can express an ablative meaning ('from that'), derived from its directional/adversative meaning.
    接頭辞 ko- は「(それ)に対して」という意味から転じて「(それ)から」という奪格の意味も表す。
    form-function ainu existential ko-
    asserts kindaichi1936
  2. The verbal prefix ko- is rarely used to express the ablative relation.
    接頭辞 ko- が奪格の関係を表すのに用いられることは稀である。
    frequency ainu few ko-
    asserts kindaichi1936
  3. The prefix ko- has an inessive meaning, 'in (that)' or 'at (that)'.
    接頭辞 ko- は「(それ)に」「(それ)に於て」(inessive) の意味を表す。
    form-function generic ko-
    asserts kindaichi1936
  4. The applicative prefix ko- is divided into a directional/adversative use meaning 'towards, against' (interchangeable with eun or or un) and an associative/comitative use meaning 'together with' (interchangeable with tura).
    充当接頭辞 ko- の用法は、基本的に「〜に向かって」「〜に対して」と訳される用法（eun や or un と交換可能）と、「〜とともに」と訳される用法（tura と交換可能）に区分される。
    form-function ainu all ko-eunor untura
    asserts nakagawa2024
  5. The applicative prefix ko- derives the ditransitive verb ko-ruska 'to be angry at someone about something' from the transitive verb ruska 'to be angry at someone/something'.
    他動詞 ruska「～を怒る」に適用態接頭辞 ko- が付くことで、複他動詞 ko-ruska「～に対して～を怒る」が派生される。
    form-function ainu ruskako-ruskako-
    asserts sato2023b

Goal and addressee: relations directed toward a person 6 claims ·5 sentences· 2 examples

How does Hokkaido Ainu express a goal or addressee as a core object with motion verbs?

  1. The dative postposition eun rarely marks recipients or addressees when a corresponding ko- applicative exists in the lexicon.
    対応する ko- 適用態動詞が存在する場合、受取手や話しかけ相手を標識する与格後置詞 eun はテキスト中で滅多に用いられない。
    distribution ainu most eunko-
    asserts bugaeva2012
  2. When a recipient is pronominal, the non-applicative paraphrase with eun is completely absent from texts if a corresponding ko- applicative exists.
    対応する ko- 適用態が存在する場合、受取手が代名詞的項であるときには eun による非適用態の言い換え構文はテキスト中に出現しない。
    absence ainu universal eunko-
    asserts bugaeva2012
  3. The prefix ko- expresses meanings such as '(there) to', '(there)unto', 'to (that)', 'toward (that)', or 'against (that)'.
    接頭辞 ko- は「(それ)に」「(それ)に對して」「(それ)に向つて」((there) to, (there)unto 等) の意を表す。
    form-function generic ko-
    asserts kindaichi1936
  4. Attaching the applicative prefix ko- to the intransitive verb hopuni 'to fly up' derives the transitive verb ko-hopuni (+2) 'to fly up towards', which can take a destination like kanto kotor 'the sky' as its direct object.
    自動詞 hopuni「飛び立つ」に充当接頭辞 ko- がつくと他動詞 ko-hopuni「〜に向かって飛び立つ」となり、kanto kotor「空」のような向かう先を目的語として取ることができる。
    form-function ainu hopuniko-hopuni
    asserts nakagawa2024
  5. To express a human recipient of pouring sake, the applicative prefix ko- is added to the intransitive iyomare, yielding koyyomare or koyomare.
    酒を注ぐ相手（人間）を表現するためには、自動詞化した iyomare に適用接頭辞 ko- を付加して koyyomare または koyomare とする。
    form-function ainu all ko-koyyomarekoyomareiyomare
    asserts sato2023b
  6. The applicative prefix ko- can express a dative or goal relation corresponding to the postposition orun.
    適用詞接頭辞 ko- は後置詞 orun に相当する与格または目標関係を表すことができる。
    form-function ainu generic ko-orun
    asserts shibatani1990
a=kor casi a=ko-hosipi wa
4.A=have castle 4.A=APPL-return CONJ
‘I returned to my castle.’
nakagawa2024:197 CHI Nakagawa ex. 185
petkorkamuy kamuy katkemat a=ko-yay-irayke hi a=ye a
river.deity deity woman 4.A=APPL-REFL-be.grateful NMLZ 4.A=say PFV
‘saying that one gave thanks to the river goddess’
ilcaa1976 SAR Kawakami Matsuko, uwepeker 9; ILCAA materials aa-irc/009#289

Comitative and benefactive uses 7 claims ·6 sentences· 1 examples

How does Hokkaido Ainu promote a comitative participant to object position?

  1. The applicative prefix ko- can express the comitative meaning 'together with'.
    充当接頭辞 ko- は「〜とともに」という共格的な意味を表すことができる。
    form-function hokkaido existential ko-
    asserts nakagawa2024
  2. The comitative use of ko- is relatively restricted, occurring mostly in fixed expressions and frequently co-occurring with noun incorporation.
    ko- の「〜とともに」の用法はかなり限定されており、決まった表現で使われることが多く、目的語名詞の抱合を伴うことが頻繁にある。
    distribution hokkaido most ko-
    asserts nakagawa2024
  3. The last Ainu speakers adopted the benefactive pair verb construction wa kore (modelled on Japanese -te kureru) in place of ko-applicatives.
    最後のアイヌ語話者は、ko- 適用態の代わりに（日本語の「〜てくれる」にならった）受益の対動詞構文 wa kore を用いた。
    variation hokkaido/southwest generic wa koreko-
    asserts bugaeva2012
  4. The comitative relation can also be expressed by the verbal prefix ko-.
    共格の関係は接頭辞 ko- によっても表現される。
    form-function ko-
    asserts kindaichi1936
  5. The prefix ko- expresses meanings such as '(there) with', '(there) by', 'together with (that)', 'with (that)', 'by means of (that)', or 'for the sake of (that)'.
    接頭辞 ko- は「(それ)と共に」「(それ)を以て」「(それ)に依て」「(それ)の爲に」((there) with, (there) by 等) の意を表す。
    form-function generic ko-
    asserts kindaichi1936
  6. nina 'to knead' (two-argument verb) becomes konina 'to knead ... with ...' (three-argument verb) by adding the applicative prefix ko-.
    nina「こねる」（二項動詞）は接頭辞 ko- により konina「〜で〜をこねる」（三項動詞）となる。
    paradigm-cell ainu example_only ninakonina
    asserts sato2008
  7. The applicative prefix ko- can express a comitative relation corresponding to the postposition tura.
    適用詞接頭辞 ko- は後置詞 tura に相当する共格関係を表すことができる。
    form-function ainu generic ko-tura
    asserts shibatani1990
a=mun-ko-tata a=toy-ko-tata ayne
4.A=garbage-APPL-chop 4.A=earth-APPL-chop then
‘I chopped it up together with garbage, then together with earth, and …’
nakagawa2024:197 CHI Nakagawa ex. 190

The ko-/o- contrast 4 claims ·4 sentences· 2 examples

What distinguishes the two applicative prefixes that encode directional goal in Hokkaido Ainu?

  1. The applicative prefix ko- can mark the allative relation on the verb instead of case-marking the noun, a pattern attested primarily in literary registers such as yukar epics.
    名詞を格標識する代わりに動詞に適用接頭辞 ko- を付加して向格関係を表すことができ、この用法は主にユカラ叙事詩などの文学言語に見られる。
    form-function hokkaido/southwest/shizunai existential ko-
    asserts refsing1986
  2. The applicative prefix o- refers exclusively to nouns with the meaning of place, whereas ko- is primarily used with non-place nouns referring to persons or animals, though place nouns are also possible with ko-.
    適用詞接頭辞o-は場所の意味を持つ名詞のみを指すのに対し、ko-は主に人や動物を指す「非場所」名詞に用いられる（ただし場所名詞もko-で使用可能である）。
    distribution ainu all o-ko-
    asserts bugaeva2006
  3. Phrases with a locative postposition such as huchi upsoro ta a-i-resu ('I was raised in grandmother's bosom') have the same meaning when the verb takes applicative prefixes like o- or ko- without the postposition (huchi upsoro a-i-o-resu or huchi upsoro a-i-ko-resu).
    huchi upsoro ta a-i-resu（祖母の懐で吾育てらる）のような後置詞構文は、動詞に接頭辞 o- や ko- を用いた huchi upsoro a-i-o-resu や huchi upsoro a-i-ko-resu と言っても意味は同じである。
    form-function ainu generic o-ko-
    asserts kindaichi1936
  4. The applicative prefix ko- in the sense of 'towards' does not require a locational noun or postpositional phrase denoting a place, unlike e-.
    「〜に向かって」の意味の接頭辞 ko- は、e- とは異なり、〈場所〉を要求しない。
    distribution hokkaido generic ko-e-
    asserts nakagawa2024
tumi o-ek
war APPL-come.SG
‘War came to my village.’
nakagawa2024:198 CHI Nakagawa ex. 192
tumi ko-ek
war APPL-come.SG
‘War came against my sister.’
nakagawa2024:198 CHI Nakagawa ex. 193

ko- in the derivational chain and with e- 3 claims ·12 sentences· 2 examples

How does the applicative prefix interact with other valency operations in Hokkaido Ainu?

  1. The prefix ko- also converts Class II verbs into Class I verbs.
    ko- もまた第II類の動詞を第I類にする。
    form-function all ko-
    asserts kindaichi1936
  2. The reflexive prefix si- can attach to the applicative prefix ko- to indicate the reference point of motion or orientation ('towards oneself').
    再帰接頭辞 si- は充当接頭辞 ko- に付いて「自分に向かって」という位置の基準を表すことがある。
    form-function ainu exists si-ko-
    asserts sato2008
  3. When yay- co-occurs with the applicative prefix ko-, yayko- either expresses an idiomatic meaning such as 'alone, by oneself' or 'intently', or yay- functions as the direct object of the action.
    yay- が充当接頭辞 ko- と共に現れる場合、yayko- は「一人で、単独で」あるいは「ただただひたすら」のような慣用化した意味を表すか、yay- が直接の動作対象である。
    form-function ainu usually yay-ko-yayko-
    asserts sato2008
ku=ko-i-ruska
1SG.A=APPL-ANTIP-be.angry
‘I am angry at (someone).’
constructed
ku=e-ko-isoytak
1SG.A=APPL-APPL-narrate
‘I narrate to (someone) about (something).’
bugaeva2006:188 constructed

Lexicalization and less transparent ko- forms 4 claims ·10 sentences

To what extent are verb forms with the applicative prefix lexicalized in Hokkaido Ainu?

  1. When the prefix ko- is added to inkar 'to look, direct one's eyes', it derives the transitive verb koinkar 'to look toward', which is restricted to special contexts like 'a god watches over (someone)'.
    inkar「見る, 目を向ける」に派生接辞 ko- を付加すると「〜の方を見る」という意味の他動詞になるが、koinkar は「神が見守る」のような特殊な場合に限定して用いられるようである。
    distribution ainu generic ko-inkarkoinkar
    asserts sato2008
  2. hemesu 'to climb' becomes kohemesu 'to climb (onto something)' by adding the applicative prefix ko-.
    hemesu「上る」は接頭辞 ko- により kohemesu「〜に上る」となる。
    paradigm-cell ainu example_only hemesukohemesu
    asserts sato2008
  3. The verb koytakkasi 'to ignore' is formed by attaching the applicative prefix ko- 'about' to itakkasi 'not to listen to / to disobey'.
    動詞 koytakkasi「無視する」は、itakkasi「言うことを聞かない」に充当接頭辞 ko-「〜について」が付いたものである。
    analysis ainu all koytakkasiitakkasiko-
    asserts sato2008
  4. The verb kosiru is analyzed as composed of the applicative prefix ko- ('toward') and the verb siru ('rub').
    動詞 kosiru は，目的語付加接頭辞（充当態接頭辞）ko-「〜に向って」と siru「こする」から構成されると分析される。
    analysis generic kosiruko-siru
    asserts sato2008