39. Noun–Noun Compounding: Headedness, Linking, and Semantics

Overview 5 claims ·8 sentences

How are compound nouns formed by combining two or more roots in Hokkaido Ainu?

1. One noun can modify another noun directly without an intervening attributive postposition.
   連体助詞を介さずに名詞が直接別の名詞を修飾することができる。
   existence hokkaido/southwest/shizunai
   asserts refsing1986
   • refsing1986:161 asserts checked
2. The forms for 'lip' are compounds consisting of the mouth stems ca- or pa- combined with either pus 'head (of grain, etc.)' or toy 'land, field', resulting in four forms: capus (caapus in Sakhalin), papus, patoy, and catoy (chātoi on Shumshu Island).
   「唇」を表す形式は「口」の語幹ca-/pa-にpus「穂」またはtoy「土、土地」が複合したものであり、capus（樺太ではcaapus）、papus、patoy、catoy（千島北部占守島ではchātoi）の4種類が認められる。
   analysis ainu all capuscaapuspapuspatoycatoychātoi
   asserts nakagawafukazawa2022
   • nakagawafukazawa2022:8.5 asserts checked
3. Nouns can be formed by compounding two nouns, as in ní-tay 'forest' and ape-sam 'hearth-side'.
   名詞同士の複合によって名詞が形成される（例：ní-tay「林」、ape-sam「炉の側」）。
   existence hokkaido/chitose generic ní-tayape-sam
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:265 asserts checked
4. The compound noun kamuykotan 'difficult place (for travel)' is analyzed as composed of kamuy 'god' and kotan 'village'.
   名詞 kamuykotan「(交通の)難所」は，kamuy「神」と kotan「村」からなる複合名詞と分析される。
   analysis generic kamuykotankamuykotan
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008 asserts checked
5. Ainu ni-pu 'wooden storehouse' is a compound of ni 'tree, wood' and pu 'storehouse', used for keeping driftwood or dry salmon, and occurs as a place name in Bihoro.
   アイヌ語の ni-pu「木造の倉」は ni「木」と pu「倉」の複合語であり、流木や干し鮭の保管に用いられ、美幌で地名として現れる。
   membership hokkaido/northeast/kitami all ni-punipu
   reports vovin2022
   • vovin2022:6.5 reports checked

Diagnostics: compound vs syntactic noun phrase 5 claims ·2 sentences

What diagnostics distinguish a compound noun from a syntactic noun phrase in Hokkaido Ainu?

1. Compound nounhood in Ainu is diagnosed by four criteria: personal affix placement, affiliative suffix placement, lexicalization, and the concept-concept configuration.
   アイヌ語の複合名詞の判定には、人称接辞の位置、所属形語尾の位置、語彙化、概念形＋概念形の構成という4つの指標が用いられる。
   analysis ainu
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:264 asserts checked
2. Formations with the diminutive suffix -po expressing smallness or affection are excluded from compound nouns.
   「小さい」や「親愛」を表す指小辞 -po が付加した派生形式は複合名詞から除外される。
   membership -po
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:268 asserts checked
3. In the Saru and Chitose dialects, okkay-po 'young man' contains the diminutive suffix -po, contrasting with okkayo-po 'son' containing the noun po 'child'.
   沙流および千歳方言では、okkay-po「若い男」は指小辞 -po を含み、名詞 po「子」を含む okkayo-po「息子」と対立する。
   form-function hokkaido/southwest/saruhokkaido/chitose okkay-pookkayo-po
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:268 asserts checked
   • supports: Formations with the diminutive suffix -po expressing smallness or affection are excluded from compound nouns.— The contrast between okkay-po and okkayo-po shows that diminutive -po is a suffix rather than the compounding noun po 'child'.
4. In many dialects, okkay is used independently for 'man', and okkaypo refers polysemously to both 'young man' and 'son'.
   多くの方言では okkay が「男」として自立し、okkaypo が「若い男」と「息子」の双方を指す多義語となっている。
   variation hokkaido okkayokkaypo
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:268 asserts checked
   • contrasts(differs in dialect): In the Saru and Chitose dialects, okkay-po 'young man' contains the diminutive suffix -po, contrasting with okkayo-po 'son' containing the noun po 'child'.— In many dialects the morphological distinction between diminutive okkay-po and compound okkayo-po is collapsed into polysemous okkaypo.
5. Verbs appearing in compound nouns in principle do not undergo personal inflection, whereas verbs appearing in relative clauses must obligatorily undergo personal inflection.
   複合名詞に現れる動詞は原則として人称変化を行わないのに対し、関係節に現れる動詞は必ず人称変化を行わなければならない。
   distribution ainu generic
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:268 asserts checked

Person-affix position 1 claims ·4 sentences· 2 examples

How does the position of possessive personal affixes differ between compounds and syntactic phrases?

1. When a personal prefix attaches to the initial element of a modifier-head combination rather than the head noun, the sequence is diagnosed as a compound noun.
   修飾語と名詞の組み合わせにおいて人称接頭辞が主要部名詞の前ではなく先頭につく場合、複合名詞と判定される。
   analysis ainu poroyupia=poroyupi
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:265 asserts anchored
   • refines(differs in scope): Compound nounhood in Ainu is diagnosed by four criteria: personal affix placement, affiliative suffix placement, lexicalization, and the concept-concept configuration.— Elaborates the personal prefix placement diagnostic among the four criteria.

Affiliative-suffix position 2 claims ·2 sentences· 2 examples

How does the affiliative suffix position indicate whether a sequence is a compound or a phrase?

1. When a compound noun is possessed, only the following (head) element takes the affiliative form.
   合成名詞が所有される場合、後続（主要部）要素のみが所属形をとる。
   distribution ainu
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
2. Because the affiliative suffix attaches only to the absolute end of a word, its attachment to the final element diagnoses a compound noun rather than a phrase.
   所属形語尾は語末にのみ付加するため、後続要素への付加は句ではなく複合名詞であることの判定基準となる。
   analysis ainu -ia=mac-i utara=matutar-i
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:265 asserts checked
   • supports: When a compound noun is possessed, only the following (head) element takes the affiliative form.— Nakagawa's suffix-placement diagnostic supports Kindaichi & Chiri's distributional rule that affiliative marking applies to the head of a compound.
   • refines(differs in scope): Compound nounhood in Ainu is diagnosed by four criteria: personal affix placement, affiliative suffix placement, lexicalization, and the concept-concept configuration.— Elaborates the affiliative suffix diagnostic criterion among the four criteria.

Lexicalization and non-compositional meaning 1 claims ·3 sentences

How does non-compositional meaning serve as a diagnostic for compound status?

1. wakkakukuttar is a compound noun rather than a noun phrase composed of a relative clause and a noun, because grammatical particles like ani are omitted and lexicalization has occurred.
   wakkakukuttar は ani などの文法的要素が消去され、かつ語彙化が起こっているため、関係文＋名詞で構成された名詞句ではなく複合名詞である。
   analysis example_only wakkakukuttar
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:269 asserts checked

The concept-form rule 7 claims ·4 sentences· 1 examples

What is the concept-form rule for identifying compounds in Hokkaido Ainu?

1. Nouns appearing in compound words take the concept (abstract) form because they express abstract concepts.
   合成語に現れる名詞は概念を表すため、概念形（抽象形）をとる。
   distribution shik-tek-
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
2. The preceding modifier element in a noun-noun compound generally takes the concept (abstract) form.
   名詞＋名詞の合成語において先行修飾要素は一般に概念形（抽象形）をとる。
   distribution ainu
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
   • refines(differs in scope): Nouns appearing in compound words take the concept (abstract) form because they express abstract concepts.— Applies the general principle of concept forms in compounds specifically to the preceding modifier element in N-N compounds.
3. Any sequence of two common nouns in the concept form can formally be analyzed as a compound noun.
   普通名詞概念形＋普通名詞概念形の連続は、形式上すべて複合名詞と分析できる。
   analysis ainu menokorusetarusapehucikamuy
   proposes nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:266 proposes extracted
   • refines(differs in level-of-analysis): The preceding modifier element in a noun-noun compound generally takes the concept (abstract) form.— Proposes that any concept-plus-concept sequence can be analyzed as a compound noun.
4. A sequence of two concept-form nouns forms a single compound noun, whereas a concept-form noun followed by an affiliative-form noun constitutes a syntactic noun phrase.
   概念形＋概念形の連続は1語の複合名詞を形成するが、概念形＋所属形は統語的な名詞句を構成する。
   analysis hokkaido
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:381 asserts extracted
   • refines(differs in scope): Any sequence of two common nouns in the concept form can formally be analyzed as a compound noun.— Contrasts the concept-plus-concept compound with the concept-plus-affiliative noun phrase structure.
5. In a concept-plus-affiliative construction the possessor noun phrase can be extracted to head a relative clause, whereas in a concept-plus-concept compound the initial noun cannot be extracted.
   概念形＋所属形の構造では所有者名詞句を関係節の主要部として抽出できるが、概念形＋概念形の複合名詞では先行名詞を抽出できない。
   judgement hokkaido sarsaraha
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:381 asserts checked
   • supports: A sequence of two concept-form nouns forms a single compound noun, whereas a concept-form noun followed by an affiliative-form noun constitutes a syntactic noun phrase.— Relative-clause extraction asymmetry provides syntactic evidence distinguishing compound nouns from possessive phrases.
6. In concept-plus-concept noun sequences, the relation is not limited to possessor-possessed, but generally involves the first noun indicating an attribute of the second.
   概念形＋概念形の名詞連続では所有関係に限られず、前部名詞が後部名詞の属性を示す関係として一般化できる。
   form-function hokkaido
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:381 asserts extracted
   • refines(differs in scope): In a noun-plus-noun compound, the first noun qualifies the nature or scope of the second noun under very loose semantic constraints.— Refines the loose qualifying relationship of N-N compounds to a general attributive specification in Hokkaido Ainu.
7. In Karafuto Ainu, the conceptual form of ordinary nouns is used in noun compounding and in noun incorporation.
   樺太アイヌ語において普通名詞の概念形は、名詞複合法や名詞抱合において用いられる。
   distribution sakhalin generic
   asserts tangiku2022
   • tangiku2022:9.4 asserts checked

Headedness, morphological linking, and accent 1 claims ·8 sentences

Are Hokkaido Ainu compound nouns head-final, and how is headedness reflected morphologically?

1. In noun-noun compounds, there are no coordinate or appositive relationships; all noun compounds are modifier-head structures in which the preceding element modifies the following element.
   「名詞＋名詞」の合成法には対等関係や一致関係のものはなく、すべて先行要素が後続要素を修飾する主従関係のものばかりである。
   analysis ainu all
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked

Formation types 11 claims ·4 sentences

What are the six formation types of compound nouns based on root valency?

1. Compound noun formation in Ainu can be reduced either to the noun-plus-noun pattern or to bringing the total arity of a verbal constituent to +1 and converting it into a noun.
   アイヌ語の複合名詞形成法は、名詞＋名詞の型に還元するか、動詞要素全体のアリティを+1にして名詞転換するかのいずれかに集約される。
   analysis
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:272 asserts checked
2. In compound nouns of noun plus one-place verb, the verb converts to a noun, yielding a noun-plus-noun structure without subject-predicate or object-predicate relations.
   名詞（概念形）＋1項動詞の複合名詞では動詞が名詞に転換し、主述や目的語述語の関係をもたない名詞＋名詞の構造となる。
   analysis
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:270 asserts checked
   • refines(differs in scope): Compound noun formation in Ainu can be reduced either to the noun-plus-noun pattern or to bringing the total arity of a verbal constituent to +1 and converting it into a noun.— Applies the N+N reduction mechanism to compound nouns consisting of a concept noun and a one-place verb.
3. In compound expressions of noun plus intransitive verb or adjective where the noun is the subject, the noun generally takes the concrete (affiliative) form.
   先行名詞が主格である名詞＋自動詞（または形容詞）の合成語では、先行名詞は一般に具体形をとる。
   distribution
   asserts kindaichi1936
   • kindaichi1936 asserts checked
4. In Ainu, compound nouns of the type 'object + transitive verb + noun' are common, whereas 'subject + transitive verb + noun' compounds do not occur.
   アイヌ語では「目的語＋他動詞＋名詞」型の複合名詞は一般的であるが、「主語＋他動詞＋名詞」型の複合名詞は見られない。
   absence ainu all
   asserts bugaeva2022
   • bugaeva2022:20.6 asserts checked
5. One-place verbs (intransitive verbs) can convert to nouns, and therefore a combination of a one-place verb plus a noun can be treated in the same way as noun plus noun, without requiring a grammatical relationship like predicate and subject between them.
   1項動詞（自動詞）は名詞に品詞転換できるため、1項動詞（自動詞）＋名詞は名詞＋名詞と同じ扱いで考えることができ、両者の間に述語と主語といった文法的関係が成り立っていなくてもよい。
   analysis generic
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:268 asserts checked
6. Even if the modifier contains a verb of two or more arguments, as long as the entire initial element has an arity of +1, it can modify a following noun to form a compound noun.
   前部要素の中に2項以上の動詞が含まれていても、前部要素全体でアリティが+1であれば、後部要素の名詞を修飾して合成名詞となることができる。
   analysis generic
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:269 asserts checked
7. Compounds formed from a noun (concept form) plus a one-place verb generally have verbal properties as well.
   名詞（概念形）＋1項動詞のタイプの複合名詞は、一般に動詞としての性質も持っていると考えられる。
   analysis usually
   proposes nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:271 proposes checked
8. Compound nouns of the one-place verb plus one-place verb type are formed by converting both elements into nouns to yield a noun-plus-noun structure.
   1項動詞＋1項動詞の複合名詞は、前部要素と後部要素が両方とも1項動詞から名詞に転換して名詞＋名詞となったものである。
   analysis generic
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:271 asserts checked
9. Nouns formed by combining a noun and a verb (e.g., sapa-kay 'dried salmon with head removed') are rare in Ainu.
   名詞と動詞の複合による名詞（例：sapa-kay「頭を取った干しサケ」）はアイヌ語では例が少ない。
   frequency ainu generic sapa-kay
   asserts sato2008
   • sato2008:266 asserts checked
10. In compound nouns of the verb-plus-noun type, as in relative clauses, the number of arguments a verb can take and the number of arguments that actually appear must in principle match.
    動詞＋名詞型の複合名詞においては、関係節の場合と同じく、動詞の取り得る項の数と実際に現れる項の数は原則として一致していなければならない。
    distribution ainu generic
    reports sato2008
    • sato2008:267 reports checked
11. Compound nouns in Ainu can employ a 'pseudo-modifying structure' in which an intransitive verb functioning as a nominal modifies a noun that is not semantically its subject (e.g., pe-ta-ru 'pier for drawing water').
    アイヌ語の複合名詞には、名詞として機能する自動詞が意味的な主語ではない名詞を修飾する「疑似修飾構造」が見られる（例：pe-ta-ru「水汲み用の桟橋」）。
    analysis ainu generic pe-ta-ru
    reports sato2008
    • sato2008:267 reports checked

Type ⑤: affiliative modifier 2 claims ·4 sentences· 2 examples

How does the affiliative modifier type (type ⑤) create a relative-clause reading in compounds?

1. In compound nouns of affiliative noun plus one-place verb, the noun acts as an arity 0 subject, yielding an incorporated arity +1 verb that undergoes nominal conversion.
   所属形名詞＋1項動詞の複合名詞では、所属形名詞（アリティ0）が主語となり、抱合によりアリティ+1となった動詞が名詞転換する。
   analysis
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:271 asserts checked
   • refines(differs in level-of-analysis): In compound expressions of noun plus intransitive verb or adjective where the noun is the subject, the noun generally takes the concrete (affiliative) form.— Reanalyzes Kindaichi & Chiri's subject concrete-form modifier as an arity 0 argument incorporated into a one-place verb.
2. The descriptive term rep-ún-kur 'Sea People, Offshore People' was used by the Ainu for the Okhotsk people and is formed on rep 'offshore'.
   オホーツク文化の人々に対してアイヌは rep「沖」に基づく記述的名称 rep-ún-kur「沖の人」を用いた。
   form-function ainu rep-ún-kurrep
   asserts janhunen2022
   • janhunen2022:2.3 asserts checked

Type ⑥: incorporated transitive object 1 claims ·3 sentences· 1 examples

How does type ⑥ incorporate a transitive object into a compound noun?

1. In compound nouns formed from a noun (concept form) plus a two-place verb, the verb incorporates the preceding noun to become a one-place verb, which is then converted into a noun.
   名詞（概念形）＋2項動詞の複合名詞は、後部要素の2項動詞が前部要素の名詞を抱合して1項動詞となり、それが名詞に転換したものである。
   analysis generic
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:272 asserts checked

Semantic patterns 1 claims ·2 sentences

What semantic patterns characterize modifier-head relationships in Hokkaido Ainu compounds?

1. In a noun-plus-noun compound, the first noun qualifies the nature or scope of the second noun under very loose semantic constraints.
   名詞＋名詞の複合名詞では、前部名詞が後部名詞の性質や範囲を規定し、意味的制約は非常に緩やかである。
   form-function ainu
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:267 asserts checked

Attributive-restrictive compounds 2 claims ·3 sentences

How do attributive-restrictive compounds specify material, origin, or property?

1. In the Asahikawa dialect, telegrams are called tunas-kampi, literally 'fast letters'.
   旭川方言では電報を tunas-kampi（直訳「速い手紙」）と呼ぶ。
   form-function hokkaido/central/asahikawa generic tunas-kampi
   asserts ono2022
   • ono2022:12.8 asserts checked
2. Attributive verbs (adjectives) can be incorporated into head nouns within noun phrases, and an attributive verb may also be incorporated into another attributive verb.
   連体修飾動詞（形容詞）は名詞句内の主要部名詞に抱合され得ると見られ、また連体修飾動詞が別の連体修飾動詞に抱合される事例も存在する。
   existence ainu generic
   asserts shibatani1990
   • shibatani1990:16 asserts anchored

Qualitative-possessive compounds: the N-kor-kur type 6 sentences· 1 examples

What is the N-kor-kur possessive compound pattern and what does it name?

Attributive NP vs compound: the scope distinction 4 sentences

How does the scope of attribution differ between a syntactic NP and a compound?

Coordinate and exocentric compounds 2 claims ·3 sentences

Why are coordinate and exocentric compounds marginal in Hokkaido Ainu?

1. In compound nouns like tureptani, ikupasuy, or ipepasuy, unlike relative clause constructions, no grammatical element indicating the instrumental relationship to the head noun is required.
   tureptani や ikupasuy、ipepasuy のような複合名詞では、関係文の場合と異なり、道具であることを表示する文法要素は必要ない。
   form-function ainu generic tureptaniikupasuyipepasuy
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:507 asserts extracted
2. The word sinotca is morphologically analyzable as sinot ('play, amusement') plus sa ('melody').
   語 sinotca は sinot「遊び」＋ sa「節」と形態素分解できる。
   analysis ainu sinotcasinotsa
   asserts nakagawa2024
   • nakagawa2024:576 asserts checked

The compound–phrase boundary 1 claims ·12 sentences

What orthographic and grammatical consequences follow from the compound–phrase distinction?

1. Certain adnominal expressions that can also appear as independent nouns are analyzed as nouns modifying other nouns.
   独立した名詞としても現れる一部の連体修飾表現は、他の名詞を修飾する名詞として分析される。
   analysis hokkaido/southwest/shizunai kamuy cepape huci
   proposes refsing1986
   • refsing1986 proposes checked
   • supports: One noun can modify another noun directly without an intervening attributive postposition.— Refsing analyzes direct adnominal expressions as independent nouns modifying head nouns without an attributive particle.