Draft. This grammar is still under revision and has not
been checked thoroughly, so it may contain clear errors. For reliable reference, use Nakagawa
(2024) 『アイヌ語広文典 』 (Ainugo kōbunten ).
Knowledge base
Where the sources have been read Every section topic of the grammar, with the number of statements the extracted sources make about it.
A section without statements is a gap: the sources read so far say nothing about it, or the sources that
do have not been extracted yet. Statements that fit a chapter but none of its sections count at chapter
level.
895/1409 section topics with statements
168/178 chapter topics with statements
Part I — The Language and Its Setting Part II — Sources, Conventions, Glossing, and Orthography Part III — Segmental Phonetics, Phonology, and Phonotactics Part IV — Prosody and the Pitch-Accent System Part V — Morphophonology and Sandhi Part VI — Word Classes and Nominal Morphology No. Chapter topic Sections with statements Statements Claims Sources read 33 The Word-Class Inventory and the Noun/Verb Bipartition 4 of 14 sections without statements
10/14 · 106 at chapter level 106 55 bugaeva2014 bugaeva2016 bugaeva2021poss bugaeva2022 kindaichi1936 majewicz2022 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022pos nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 sato2025a shibatani1990 tangiku2022 34 Nominal Subclasses and Obligatorily-Possessed (Bound) Nouns 3 of 11 sections without statements
8/11 · 114 at chapter level 114 58 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2015 bugaeva2016 bugaeva2021poss bugaeva2022 bugaevakobayashi2022 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022pos nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 shiraishitangiku2022 tangiku2022 vovin2022 35 The Formal / Defective Noun Set (ruwe, hawe, siri, humi, hi, pe, kur)
8/8 · 197 at chapter level 197 111 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2015 bugaeva2016 bugaeva2022 hirosawa2026 janhunen2022 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022pos nakagawa2024 nam2021 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 takahashi2022 vovin2022 36 Verbal Subclasses: A Valence-Based Word-Class Taxonomy 1 of 8 sections without statements
7/8 · 123 at chapter level 123 56 bugaeva2006 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2014 bugaeva2015 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 sato2023b sato2025a satoni2022 shibatani1990 yoshikawa2022 37 The 'No Adjective Class' Thesis: Property Concepts as Stative Verbs 4 of 12 sections without statements
8/12 · 83 at chapter level 83 43 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2014 bugaeva2015 bugaeva2021poss kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022pos nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 yoshikawa2022 38 Derivational Morphology on Nouns: Diminutive, Augmentative, and Size Modification 2 of 8 sections without statements
6/8 · 48 at chapter level 48 33 kindaichi1936 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 vovin2022 39 Noun–Noun Compounding: Headedness, Linking, and Semantics 2 of 16 sections without statements
14/16 · 64 at chapter level 64 43 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2022 janhunen2022 kindaichi1936 nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 ono2022 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 tangiku2022 vovin2022 40 Deverbal and Denominal Noun Derivation (Lexical Nominalizer Morphology) 6 of 12 sections without statements
6/12 · 50 at chapter level 50 28 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2016 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 okuda2022 ono2022 refsing1986 sato2008 sato2025a shibatani1990 tangiku2022 vovin2022 41 Nominal Number: Transnumerality, -utar, and the Locus of Plurality
7/7 · 73 at chapter level 73 45 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2015 bugaeva2022 janhunen2022 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022 nakagawa2022pos nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 tangiku2022 42 The Structure of the Noun Phrase 1 of 9 sections without statements
8/9 · 134 at chapter level 134 66 bugaeva2006 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2014 bugaeva2015 bugaeva2022 kindaichi1936 majewicz2022 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022pos nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 tamura1972
Part VII — Possession and the Affiliative System Part VIII — Pronouns, Demonstratives, Postpositions, and Numerals No. Chapter topic Sections with statements Statements Claims Sources read 49 Personal, Reflexive, and Emphatic Pronouns
9/9 · 210 at chapter level 210 146 bugaeva2006 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2022 bugaevakobayashi2022 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022pos nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 refsing1986 sato2004 sato2008 sato2025a shibatani1990 tamura1972 50 Demonstratives, Anaphora, and Definiteness 1 of 7 sections without statements
6/7 · 171 at chapter level 171 116 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 vovin2022 51 Interrogative, Indefinite, and Negative-Polarity Pro-forms
6/6 · 159 at chapter level 159 127 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2022 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 52 Relational and Spatial (Locative) Nouns and Their Possessed Forms
9/9 · 323 at chapter level 323 216 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2015 bugaeva2021poss bugaeva2022 bugaevakobayashi2022 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022pos nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 sato2023b shibatani1990 tangiku2022 vovin2022 53 Postpositions, Local Case, Motion Events, Comitative, and Instrumental 1 of 8 sections without statements
7/8 · 410 at chapter level 410 225 alonso2022 bugaeva2006 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2015 bugaeva2016 bugaeva2022 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022pos nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 tangiku2022 vovin2022 54 The Vigesimal Numeral System 2 of 9 sections without statements
7/9 · 128 at chapter level 128 100 alonso2022 bugaeva2012 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 tangiku2022 55 Numeral Classifiers, Ordinals, and Quantifier Syntax 1 of 13 sections without statements
12/13 · 130 at chapter level 130 51 alonso2022 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2021poss bugaeva2022 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 tamura1972
Part IX — The Verb: Structure, Transitivity, and Verbal Number Part X — The Personal-Affix System and Alignment Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation Part XII — The Simple Clause and Nonverbal Predication Part XIII — Nominalization, Relativization, and Complementation Part XIV — Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Modality No. Chapter topic Sections with statements Statements Claims Sources read 108 Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Modality: Overview 1 of 7 sections without statements
6/7 · 73 at chapter level 73 18 alonso2022 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2014 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 takahashi2022 yoshikawa2022 109 Tenselessness and the Time-Reference System 1 of 6 sections without statements
5/6 · 55 at chapter level 55 35 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2014 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 yoshikawa2022 110 The Existential-Aspect System: kor an Progressive and wa an Resultative-Perfect
11/11 · 150 at chapter level 150 120 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2022 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 refsing1986 sato2008 sato2023b shibatani1990 takahashi2022 yoshikawa2022 111 The Perfective/Anterior Particle a (a, a…a, aan) 2 of 10 sections without statements
8/10 · 62 at chapter level 62 47 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2021poss hirosawa2026 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 yoshikawa2022 112 The 'Appearance' Continuative: siran, siri…, and kane an 1 of 7 sections without statements
6/7 · 38 at chapter level 38 27 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 yoshikawa2022 113 Phasal, Iterative, and Habitual Aspect 1 of 8 sections without statements
7/8 · 180 at chapter level 180 85 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2016 bugaeva2022 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022 nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 takahashi2022 yoshikawa2022 114 Imperative and Prohibitive (Directive Mood)
7/7 · 124 at chapter level 124 40 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2016 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022 nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 refsing1986 sato2008 sato2023b shibatani1990 115 Hortative, Optative, and Cohortative 1 of 5 sections without statements
4/5 · 27 at chapter level 27 14 kindaichi1936 nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 ono2022 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 116 The Desiderative rusuy 2 of 8 sections without statements
6/8 · 34 at chapter level 34 19 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 sato2025a shibatani1990 117 Abilitative easkay / eaykap (Ability and Possibility) 2 of 5 sections without statements
3/5 · 28 at chapter level 28 13 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 118 Deontic Necessity and Obligation (kuni ne, kus ne) 3 of 6 sections without statements
3/6 · 30 at chapter level 30 14 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2016 kindaichi1936 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 119 Epistemic Modality, Dubitative, Intentive, and Irrealis 4 of 7 sections without statements
3/7 · 86 at chapter level 86 30 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2016 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 sato2009 shibatani1990
Part XV — Evidentiality and Mirativity Part XVI — Negation Part XVII — Clause Linkage and Adverbial Subordination Part XVIII — Information Structure, Sentence-Final Particles, and Minor Classes No. Chapter topic Sections with statements Statements Claims Sources read 139 Reference Tracking and Argument Continuity 9 of 10 sections without statements
1/10 · 5 at chapter level 5 1 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2016 refsing1986 tangiku2022 140 Topic and Focus Marking: anak(ne), patek, and ka 1 of 12 sections without statements
11/12 · 172 at chapter level 172 109 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2015 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 vovin2022 141 Cleft, Pseudocleft, and Nominalization-Based Focus 8 of 8 sections without statements
0/8 0 0 142 Pragmatic Word-Order Permutation, Dislocation, and Argument Ellipsis 3 of 6 sections without statements
3/6 · 14 at chapter level 14 3 bugaeva2015 bugaeva2022 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 tamura1972 143 The Sentence-Final Particle System and Illocutionary Force 3 of 15 sections without statements
12/15 · 182 at chapter level 182 97 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2016 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 tangiku2022 144 Interrogative Strategies, Question Particles, and Evidential Questions 2 of 9 sections without statements
7/9 · 129 at chapter level 129 74 bugaeva2008 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2016 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 nakagawafukazawa2022 refsing1986 sato2008 sato2009 shibatani1990 shiraishi2022 145 Gendered Speech and Pragmatic Registers 2 of 6 sections without statements
4/6 · 52 at chapter level 52 17 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 ono2022 sato2008 shibatani1990 tamura1972 146 Adverbs, Degree Words, and Comparison Strategies
7/7 · 196 at chapter level 196 69 bugaeva2015 bugaeva2022 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022pos nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 vovin2022 147 Conjunctions and Discourse Connectives 3 of 8 sections without statements
5/8 · 79 at chapter level 79 24 bugaeva2012 bugaeva2022 kindaichi1936 kirikae1997 murasaki2025 nakagawa2022pos nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 shibatani1990 tangiku2022 148 Interjections, Response Words, Ideophones, and Sound Symbolism 1 of 7 sections without statements
6/7 · 74 at chapter level 74 47 bugaeva2008 kindaichi1936 murasaki2025 nakagawa2024 refsing1986 sato2008 tamura1972
Part XIX — Discourse and the Grammar of Oral Literature Part XX — Diachrony, Reconstruction, and Dialectology Part XXI — Language Contact and the Lexicon Part XXII — Glossed Texts Part XXIII — Reference Apparatus (Back Matter) Reference Grammar · References · Abbreviations © 2026 A Grammar of Hokkaido Ainu