Knowledge base · Part X — The Personal-Affix System and Alignment · this topic as a network
67. The Indefinite/Fourth Person: Forms, Reference, and Agent-Defocusing
How does Hokkaido Ainu express the indefinite/fourth person, and what referential and agent-defocusing functions does it serve?
The indefinite/fourth-person verbal cross-reference marker in Ainu has four functions: indefinite person, inclusive first-person plural, polite second person (singular and plural), and logophoric/protagonist person in narratives. (Bugaeva 2014) The fourth person verbal indexing displays tripartite alignment: a- for transitive subject (A) and possessor, -an for intransitive subject (S), and i- for object (O). (Bugaeva 2022: 1.4) In many dialects, intransitive verbs occur only in their plural form when used with the fourth-person personal affix. (Bugaeva 2022: 20.6) There is no singular/plural distinction in fourth-person personal affixes, so that in dialects such as Saru, the plurality of a fourth-person subject is expressed solely by the verb stem itself. (Nakagawa 2022: 17.3) The fourth-person possessor prefix on ordinary nouns is a- in western Hokkaido dialects and an- elsewhere. (Nakagawa 2022: 14.4) In the Saru and Chitose dialects, the intransitive fourth-person nominative affix can appear with singular verb stems as well as plural verb stems. (Nakagawa & Fukazawa 2022: 8.4) The Saru and Chitose dialects possess a singular-plural distinction in the fourth person. (Nakagawa & Fukazawa 2022: 8.6) Ainu has a bound person pronoun i- that is homophonous with the antipassive prefix i-. (Nam 2021) The bound person pronoun i- (traditionally termed the fourth person pronoun) functions as first-person plural inclusive, second-person singular or plural honorific, and singular or plural logophoric. (Nam 2021) In Ainu oral literature, the first-person protagonist is generally indexed by a- (or an-) for transitive subject, -an for intransitive subject, and i- for object. (Satō 2004) In Kindaichi's (1931b) description, the personal affixes a- (transitive subject), -an (intransitive subject), and i- (object) function as inclusive first-person plural in colloquial speech and as first-person (singular and plural) in the poetic/elevated register (雅語). (reported in Satō 2004) In Ainu expressions corresponding to 'the door is left open', indefinite person affixes are used, and in such expressions forms corresponding to indefinite personal pronouns cannot be additionally used. (Satō 2004) The quotative first-person singular has the pronoun 'asinúma, nominative affixes 'a- and -'án, and objective affix 'i-, with singular grammatical number, replacing the ordinary first-person singular forms káni, ku-, and 'en- inside a quoted clause when someone quotes a sentence containing them. (Tamura 1972) The quotative first-person plural pronoun is 'a'oká, the nominative affixes are 'a- and -'án, and the objective affix is 'i-. (Tamura 1972) The quotative first-person plural forms replace the exclusive first-person plural forms cóka, ci-, -'ás, and 'un- when another person quotes a sentence containing them. (Tamura 1972) In the indefinite person, there is no independent pronoun, the nominative/subject affix is 'a-, and there is no objective affix. (Tamura 1972: 34) The indefinite person expresses an agent (when attached to a transitive verb) or a possessor (when attached to a noun) without specifying who or what it is, expressing merely that some agent or possessor exists. (Tamura 1972: 34) The element 'án, which corresponds to an intransitive indefinite-person subject suffix, has strong syntactic independence, can be separated from the verb stem by an intervening adverbial phrase, and behaves like an independent verb meaning 'to exist'. (Tamura 1972: 34) In Karafuto Ainu, the fourth-person (indefinite person) affixes an-/-an do not have a separate first-person inclusive function, but are used as first-person singular forms in addition to ku-. (Tangiku 2022: 9.7) Hattori (1961) and Murasaki (1979) treat the first-person singular use of an-/-an as a stylistic difference corresponding to an elders' speech style. (reported in Tangiku 2022: 9.7) In Karafuto Ainu, the fourth person affixes are used for indefinite persons. (Tangiku 2022: 9.7) In Karafuto Ainu, fourth person affixes are used for the subject in an impersonal passive sentence, with the agent expressed by the ablative case. (Tangiku 2022: 9.7) In Karafuto Ainu, fourth person affixes are used to represent unspecified people speaking in quoted sentences. (Tangiku 2022: 9.7)
The formal paradigm
Which verbal affixes index the indefinite/fourth person as transitive subject, intransitive subject, and object?
In Classical Ainu, the first-person transitive subject is marked by the prefix a- for both singular and plural categories. (Shibatani 1990: 24, 54) The indefinite person markers comprise the plural pronoun aoka, a= for plural A, =an for plural S, and i= for plural O. (reported in Bugaeva 2008) When an obligatorily possessed noun has an unspecified possessor, speakers mark the possessor with the fourth-person transitive subject marker a-. (Bugaeva, Nichols & Bickel 2022) In the Saru dialect, the fourth-person subject of a 1-argument verb is marked by the suffix -an, whereas the fourth-person subject of a 2- or 3-argument verb is marked by the prefix a-. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.2) In the Saru dialect, the fourth-person object is marked on the verb by the prefix i-. (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.2) In the region from the Saru River basin westward in Hokkaido, only a= is used for the transitive fourth-person subject affix. (Nakagawa 2024: 168) In regions other than the Saru River basin and westward, both a= and an= are used for the transitive fourth-person subject affix, with selection criteria varying by locality. (Nakagawa 2024: 168) In the Tokachi dialect, the transitive fourth-person subject affix is an= before words that begin with a vowel and do not have an accent on the first syllable, and a= elsewhere. (reported in Nakagawa 2024: 169) In the Shizunai dialect, no conditioning distinction between a= and an= is observed for the transitive fourth-person subject affix. (reported in Nakagawa 2024: 169) In the Ishikari dialect, an= is standard for the transitive fourth-person subject affix, but the form a= also appears. (reported in Nakagawa 2024: 169) In the Shiranuka dialect, the transitive fourth-person subject affix is basically an=, while a= is used most frequently with ye 'say' and rarely with e 'eat', o 'put in', nukar 'see', and nise 'scoop'. (reported in Nakagawa 2024: 169) In the Samani dialect, an= is predominantly used for the transitive fourth-person subject affix, but a= is also sometimes used. (Nakagawa 2024: 169) Even in dialects such as Saru, Chitose, and Horobetsu, where usually only a= is used, instances of an= are not infrequently observed, especially in formulaic expressions in verse. (Nakagawa 2024: 169) The transitive fourth-person subject affix an= is an older form than a=, retained in formulaic expressions. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 169) The personal affixes of the fourth person comprise transitive subject a= or an= (differing by dialect), intransitive subject =an, and transitive object i=. (Nakagawa 2024: 174) The affix a-/an- is primarily the affix for the indefinite person. (Refsing 1986: 31) The etymology of an- and -an, and probably a- as well, overlaps with that of the existential verb an. (Refsing 1986: 218) The form *a-sini is grammatically ungrammatical, while sini-an is the correct form. (Satō 2008) The suffix -an marks the indefinite-person nominative on intransitive verbs. (Satō 2008: 366) Ainu marks the first-person plural inclusive (fourth-person) subject with the prefix a- on transitive verbs, but with the suffix -an on intransitive verbs. (Satō 2022: 16.2) The prefix a- is often used to indicate indefiniteness of the personal reference. (Shibatani 1990) Both transitive and intransitive affixes occur in the indefinite-person construction according to verb transitivity. (Shibatani 1990: 56) In modern Saru Ainu, the indefinite subject prefix 'a- and the object prefix 'i- can co-occur on a single verb stem, forming combinations such as 'a-'i-. (Tamura 1972: 35) The indefinite person lacks an independent personal pronoun and is only expressed by a personal prefix. (Tamura 1972)
Side-encoding and allomorphy
Does the indefinite/fourth person subject appear as a prefix or a suffix depending on verb transitivity?
In the Shizunai dialect, the indefinite person marker is the prefix an- (or in some cases a-) when attached to transitive verbs, the copula, or nouns in the belonging form. (Refsing 1986: 218) In the Shizunai dialect, the indefinite person of intransitive verbs is marked by the suffix -an. (Refsing 1986: 218) In the Chitose dialect, an indefinite A acting on a second-person plural O is marked by act=, whereas Saru uses a=eci=. (Bugaeva 2012: 474–475) The intransitive fourth-person subject suffix =an exhibits clitic-like autonomy compared to other personal affixes. (Nakagawa 2024: 183) In Chitose and Saru dialects, =an can be separated from the verb by adverbial particles such as ka, anak, or poka in a construction called detached person. (Nakagawa 2024: 183) When an indefinite person prefix is attached to a noun, it combines exclusively with the possessive (affiliative) form by a grammatical constraint, regardless of whether the possessor is specific. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 231) While the fourth-person personal affixes themselves lack a singular/plural distinction, Saru, Chitose, and Horobetsu allow intransitive verbs that have distinct singular and plural stems to take fourth-person affixes on either stem depending on meaning, whereas in other dialects the fourth-person intransitive subject affix combines only with plural stems. (Nakagawa 2024: 251) When an intransitive verb carries the fourth-person subject clitic =an, the clitic alone can be repeated in the pattern =an a =an a. (Nakagawa 2024: 307) The indefinite pronominal affixes an- and -an are always used with the plural form of verbs whenever a singular/plural verb distinction exists. (Refsing 1986: 227) Combinations of the indefinite pronominal affix in the nominative with a second-person objective affix are identical in form to combinations of the first-person nominative with the second-person objective. (Refsing 1986: 227)
Referential range: five uses
What referential values can the indefinite/fourth person forms take, and how are these uses related?
The indefinite (fourth) person in Ainu has four primary functions: indefinite proper/impersonal, first-person plural inclusive, second-person honorific, and logophoric. (Bugaeva 2016, Bugaeva 2022: 1.4, Bugaeva 2015: 46) The indefinite pronominal affix fundamentally refers to an unknown actor or people in general, and covers the function of the passive voice. (Refsing 1986: 218) Indefinite person markers function not only to refer to a generalized or indefinite subject and object, but also express first-person plural in quotes, first-person plural inclusive, and second-person singular/plural honorific. (reported in Bugaeva 2008) The indefinite proper, referring to an indefinite speaker or addressee, does not allow the pronoun aoka and originally could only be used with plural forms of verbs regardless of the referent's number. (Bugaeva 2012: 474–475) Functions expressed by the indefinite person marking include indefinite proper, first-person plural inclusive, second-person singular/plural honorific, and logophoric. (Bugaeva 2012: 474–475) The fourth person in Ainu primarily marks an unspecified or indefinite possessor, but also functions as inclusive first-person plural, second-person honorific, and logophoric. (Bugaeva, Nichols & Bickel 2022) The prefix a- has a universal person function, extending from 'we / all of us' to 'humanity in general' (e.g., a-e-p 'food', a-mi-p 'clothing'). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The prefix a- has an indefinite person function equivalent to French on or German man (e.g., wempe an yak a-ye 'they say a misfortune occurred'). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) In older-generation speech, the first-person plural form is used to express first-person singular. (Murasaki 2025: 93) Third-person forms cannot be used for indefinite or non-specific entities or generalized agents in Ainu; such indefinite or general actions are expressed using the fourth person. (Nakagawa 2024: 165) The fourth person has five main uses: inclusive 'we' including the addressee, an honorific second person addressing the hearer, indefinite person ('people in general'), narrator's person in tales, and quoted-speech speaker person. (Nakagawa 2024: 175) In the indefinite-person usage, independent personal pronouns are not used. (Nakagawa 2024: 177) Focusing on the object rather than the subject, functionally equivalent to an active-to-passive conversion, can be expressed in Ainu using the indefinite (fourth) person prefix. (Nakagawa 2024: 428) When the entity affecting the object is not an intentional actor, it is often obligatory to express the subject with the indefinite person. (Nakagawa 2024: 429) The indefinite person may be used to express an unspecified agent, polite vagueness (honorific second person), and a pretended first person (such as in first-person narratives). (Refsing 1986: 31) Kindaichi identifies six functions for a- besides 1st person plural inclusive: general person, indefinite person, passive voice, middle voice, participle marker, and honorific 2nd person. (reported in Refsing 1986: 31) The indefinite person may be used to express an unspecified agent, polite vagueness for a 2nd person honorific, or a pretended 1st person in first-person narratives. (Refsing 1986: 31) In Shizunai Ainu, functions described in other dialects as the 'first person in folk tales' and the 'polite second person' fall within the semantic range of the indefinite person. (Refsing 1986) The indefinite person affixes a-, an-, and -an can be interpreted in context as indefinite person (sing./plur.), first-person singular, first-person plural, first person in folktales, second-person honorific, or a passive marker. (Refsing 1986: 218) The indefinite person morphemes a-, an-, and -an can be interpreted as indefinite person (singular/plural), first-person singular, first-person plural, first person in folk tales, second-person honorific, or passive marker. (Refsing 1986: 218) In the Shizunai dialect, the indefinite person affix can be used to express the first person singular. (Refsing 1986) In the Shizunai dialect, the indefinite person affix can be used to express the first person plural. (Refsing 1986) The distinction between first person singular and plural reference with the indefinite pronominal affix in nominative-objective affixation must be made on the basis of context. (Refsing 1986: 227) The indefinite person behaves conceptually as a plural category. (Refsing 1986: 227) The prefix a- in a-okere is identical in shape to the transitive first-person plural inclusive subject prefix a-, but it expresses an indefinite agent ('people in general') and defocuses the subject, functioning similarly to a passive or spontaneous construction. (Satō 2008: 145) a-sitoma is formed by prefixing the indefinite person affix a- to sitoma 'to fear', meaning literally 'people fear' and hence 'fearful, terrible'. (Satō 2008: 303) The expression cip a-nukar, literally 'we see a ship', can mean 'a ship is visible' and can be used even if only one person sees the ship. (Shibatani 1990)
Inclusive and impersonal reference
How do the indefinite/fourth person forms express addressee-inclusive 'we' and impersonal human agency?
In Iburi (excluding Mukawa), the first-person nominative in incorporated inflection is expressed by the suffix -an, and this also applies to the passive inflection (e.g., i-kore-an, en-kore-an, un-kore-an, e-kore-an, echi-kore-an). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) In the Iburi dialect (except Mukawa), the first-person subject acting on a second-person object in incorporating conjugation is marked by the suffix -an rather than the prefix a-. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) When 'we' includes the addressee, the fourth person is used, and intransitive verbs with singular/plural distinction take their plural form. (Nakagawa 2024: 175) When inviting an interlocutor to do something together, the fourth person is normally used. (Nakagawa 2024: 175) When the fourth person is used as an indefinite person ('people in general'), the verb takes the plural form. (Nakagawa 2024: 177) In indefinite-person expressions, the semantic agent can be optionally expressed in the ablative case with or wa 'from'. (Nakagawa 2024: 177) The indefinite person is employed for the first-person plural only when the speaker does not perceive 'we' as a clearly defined group of which they are representative. (Refsing 1986: 31) In the Shizunai dialect, the indefinite person prefix a- can be used to create a passive construction. (Refsing 1986) Ainu uses the indefinite pronominal affix as its only means of expressing the passive voice, even when the agent is overt and specific. (Refsing 1986: 227) When the first-person objective co-occurs with the indefinite person nominative, the combinations a en (singular) and a un (plural) denote that a non-specific agent causes an action affecting the first person. (Refsing 1986: 227) The inclusive first-person plural subject affixes (transitive a-, intransitive -an) can be used in an indefinite sense meaning 'people, anyone', forming indefinite-person clauses. (Satō 2008: 203) Unlike ordinary first-person plural clauses, indefinite-person clauses cannot take an independent personal pronoun such as aokāy for emphasis. (Satō 2008: 204) In indefinite-person clauses, intransitive verbs that distinguish singular and plural forms in principle appear in their plural form. (Satō 2008: 204) Through its indefinite use, the prefix a- developed into a passive-forming prefix. (Shibatani 1990) The first-person plural inclusive affixes are involved in the indefinite-person construction, the spontaneous construction, and the passive construction. (Shibatani 1990: 56)
The fourth-person object i= and the detransitive prefix i-
How is the indefinite/fourth person object indexed, and what semantic roles does that object cover?
The objective case of the indefinite person is marked by the prefix i-, which is formally identical to the object prefix i-. (Refsing 1986: 218) The indefinite-person object prefix i- can mean 'me' or 'us' when used in place of the first person. (Refsing 1986) Class I (transitive) verbs take a- to form participial adjectives (e.g., aekatnu 'desirable', aeoripak 'awe-inspiring', ashitoma 'dreadful'), whereas Class II verbs are used as adjectives as they are. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) There are instances where i- is used instead of the first-person singular subjective prefix a-. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The prefix i- can attach to verbs to mean that 'that (thing)' performs the action, where 'that' denotes something mutually understood by context or convention. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) In the clause iteki iye kus ne na, the prefix i- is identical in form to the elevated first-person objective affix, but functions as a portmanteau personal affix marking second-person singular subject and first-person singular object ('you ... me'). (proposed in Satō 2008: 335)
Honorific, narrative, and logophoric uses
How are the indefinite/fourth person forms used for honorific address, narrative perspective, and reported speech?
In folk tales, the indefinite person affix can refer to either a first-person singular or a first-person plural protagonist. (Refsing 1986) Tamura's 'first person in quotes' usage of the indefinite person is analyzed as logophoric. (proposed in Bugaeva 2008) The 'first person singular/plural in quotes' usage of the indefinite person is found across all Ainu dialects and is used in folklore texts of most genres to refer to the protagonist (author) within the quote. (Bugaeva 2008) The presence of embedded discourse is a prerequisite for the occurrence of the indefinite pronouns asinuma (singular) and aoka (plural) and their corresponding verbal affixes in their logophoric use. (Bugaeva 2008) In Southern Hokkaido dialects of Ainu, the indefinite person affixes and pronouns—asinuma (singular), aoka (plural), a= (singular/plural subject of transitive and possessor), =an (singular/plural subject of intransitive), and i= (singular/plural object)—constitute a special set of logophoric markers functioning in addition to the normal personal markers. (proposed in Bugaeva 2008) In Eastern and Central Hokkaido Ainu dialects, the non-singular inclusive pronoun anokay and verbal affixes an= (A), =an (S), and i= (O) are used invariably in a logophoric sense to refer to both plural and singular participants coreferential with the matrix clause subject. (Bugaeva 2008) In Southern Hokkaido Ainu dialects, marking coreferentiality of plural participants with the matrix clause author employs the pronoun aoka, affixes a= (PL.A/PL.POSS), =an (PL.S), and i= (PL.O), with verb stems appearing in plural forms. (Bugaeva 2008) In semi-direct speech, pronominal adjustment to the reporter's perspective occurs in that the so-called indefinite person is used to refer to a second- or third-person original speaker, whereas other referents appear in the forms originally used. (Bugaeva 2008) In the classical language, a first-person subject acting on a second-person singular object is marked by prefixing a-e- to the transitive verb. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) In the classical language, a first-person subject acting on a second-person plural object is marked by prefixing a-echi- to the transitive verb. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) In the Sakhalin dialect (both classical and colloquial), a first-person subject acting on a second-person object uses the prefix sequence an-e- (singular object) or an-echi- (plural object). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) In the Saru and Chitose dialects, only the honorific and quotation/narrator uses of the fourth person distinguish singular and plural. (Nakagawa 2024: 180) When a pronominal affix is used for the second person while showing respect at the same time, the indefinite pronominal affix must be used. (Refsing 1986: 218) The indefinite personal prefix i- is sometimes used honorifically to refer to a second-person object (e.g. ku-i-kusa 'I ferry you across'), but this is a lexically specific derivational phenomenon and cannot attach to all verbs (e.g. *ku-i-kore is impossible). (Satō 2008: 147) In oral literature texts, literary/archaic person marking is used, in which a- marks first-person transitive subject, -an marks first-person intransitive subject, and i- marks first-person object. (Satō 2008: 247) In the classical register ('雅語'), the subject personal affixes are a- for first-person transitive and -an for first-person intransitive, identical for both singular and plural, while ku- is not used. (Satō 2008: 261) In the classical register, the first-person object affix is i- for both singular and plural. (Satō 2008: 261)
Terminology and comparative note
What competing terms have been used for this person category, and what analytical differences do they reflect?
The affix 'an-/-'an, which marks indefinite person (fourth person) in Hokkaido Ainu, is used for first-person plural in youth speech and for first-person singular in elder speech in Sakhalin Ainu. (Murasaki 2025: 84) Sakhalin Ainu lacks an indefinite (fourth) person category. (Murasaki 2025: 85) In Refsing's analysis of the Shizunai dialect, a-/an- is primarily the affix for the indefinite person. (Refsing 1986: 31) The prefix ci- (c- before vowels) can function as a derivational prefix expressing the generic indefinite meaning 'people in general'. (Satō 2008: 207) The prefix un- occurs extremely rarely as an indefinite derivational prefix meaning 'people (in general) as object'. (Satō 2008: 207)