Knowledge base · Part VI — Word Classes and Nominal Morphology · this topic as a network
41. Nominal Number: Transnumerality, -utar, and the Locus of Plurality
How does the language express number on nouns, and what is the division between nominal and verbal plurality?
Transnumerality: nouns unspecified for number
How do bare nouns indicate number, and are they specified for singular or plural?
Ainu nouns do not distinguish singular and plural by themselves; a bare noun form represents both singular and plural referents. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) Entities that inherently exist in the plural are lexicalized through reduplication in Ainu. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) Ainu does not mark nouns morphologically for number, with morphological singular/plural distinctions occurring only on verbs. (Nakagawa 2022: 17.1) In Hokkaido Ainu dialects, nouns lack a grammatical category of number, with no form that obligatorily marks singular versus plural. (Nakagawa 2024: 259) Number on general nouns is unmarked, except for a few cases marked by reduplication. (Refsing 1986: 81) In Shizunai Ainu, nouns are generally unmarked for number, but plurality may be emphasized by reduplication or by suffixing -utar. (Refsing 1986: 159) Full nouns lack grammatical number inflection, and there is no number agreement within the noun phrase. (Shibatani 1990: 32)
The formal noun utar — distributional status
What is the distributional status of the formal noun utar and how does it function?
In Shizunai Ainu, nouns that can take the plural suffix -utar generally do so when quantified by numerals greater than one. (Refsing 1986: 117) In collective nominal usage, the noun 'utár refers to '(Ainu) people'. (Janhunen 2022: 2.2) The particle utar is placed after nouns when plural number is explicitly indicated. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The formal noun utar marks nominal plurality explicitly and can occur with inanimate nouns like suma utar 'stones' and ni utar 'trees'. (Nakagawa 2024: 259) Number on general nouns is marked only in a few cases by the suffix -utar. (Refsing 1986: 81) In Shizunai Ainu, the suffix -utar attaches to personal pronouns to form plural pronouns. (Refsing 1986: 159) In Shizunai Ainu, -utar functions as a plural nominalizer when suffixed to verbal stems. (Refsing 1986: 159) When functioning as a nominalizer on verbal stems in Shizunai Ainu, -utar exclusively refers to human beings. (Refsing 1986: 161) In addition to clausal modification, utar can stand in apposition to a noun to express nominal plurality. (Satō 2008: 181) The suffix -utar can attach to nouns to express plurality or an associative reading ('X and others'). (Shibatani 1990: 32)
Semantics: associative reading and the animacy debate
What is the semantic reading of utar when pluralizing nouns, and what is the debate about animacy?
The plural marker utar does not necessarily express multiple identical items but can convey an associative plural meaning ('X and company'), which is restricted to animates. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The plural marker utar cannot attach to inanimate nouns such as shuma 'stone' or ni 'tree'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) In Shizunai Ainu, the suffix -utar is widely used for humans, rare for animals, and never occurs with inanimates. (Refsing 1986: 159) The plural marker utar can be placed after nouns denoting non-human living things to express plurality. (Satō 2008: 298)
The lexicalized plural hekattar
How is the plural form hekattar lexicalized, and what is its origin?
The noun hekachi 'child' combines with utar to form the lexicalized plural hekattar, which can further take utar again as hekattar utar. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936)
utar and utari(hi): the form–meaning distinction
What is the form–meaning distinction between utar and utari(hi)?
In Shizunai Ainu, placing -utar inside the possessive suffix (e.g. a=yup-utar-i) marks associative plural, whereas placing utar outside (e.g. a=yup-i utar) marks regular plural. (Bugaeva 2015: 57) The plural suffix -utar historically derives from the noun utari 'friend, fellow Ainu, relative'. (Refsing 1986: 159) The noun utar means 'relatives', and utari functions as its affiliative (possessed) form. (Satō 2008: 181) Placing -utar inside the possessive suffix marks plural possession ('my older brothers', ku-yup-utar-i), whereas placing -utar outside marks associative plural possession ('my older brother and others', ku-yup-i-utar). (Shibatani 1990: 32)
Locus of plurality: utar vs verbal number
How does the language use nominal utar and verbal number morphology, and are they independent?
Because Ainu nouns do not inflect for number while verbs distinguish singular and plural stems, the number of a noun is generally signaled by its associated verb. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) When the number of a noun is explicitly indicated by a numeral, the verb need not mark plural and remains in the singular stem. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) Although Ainu nouns lack a grammatical number category, certain verbs distinguish singular and plural stems (verbal number). (Nakagawa 2024: 140)
Sakhalin contrast
How do Sakhalin varieties differ in their use of the cognate of utar?
In Sakhalin Ainu, -(a)hcin expresses strictly homogeneous plurality on affiliative forms or nominalizers, whereas -uta(ra) can express either homogeneous or associative plurality. (Nakagawa 2024: 261; reported in Nakagawa 2024: 260) Pluralizing nominal suffixes such as 'utah and 'oy in Sakhalin Ainu are classified as post-nominal determiners. (Murasaki 2025) In Sakhalin Ainu, 'utah functions as a plural suffix meaning '-people, -s'. (Murasaki 2025: 59) In the elder register of Sakhalin Ainu, plural forms are pervasive across both nouns and verbs. (Murasaki 2025: 87) The possessive plural suffix -hcin is unique to Sakhalin Ainu and does not exist in Hokkaido Ainu. (Murasaki 2025: 100) In Sakhalin Ainu, plural marking fundamentally distinguishes whether a group belongs to someone or something, using -hcin for possessed groups. (Murasaki 2025: 101) In Sakhalin Ainu, 'uta(h) / 'utara expresses a moderate plural and, unlike in Hokkaido, can occur with all non-affiliative nouns rather than only human nouns. (Murasaki 2025: 102) In Sakhalin Ainu, the post-nominal determiner 'oy denotes a larger number of referents than 'uta(h). (Murasaki 2025: 102) In Sakhalin Ainu, the post-nominal determiner 'ikiri denotes an even larger crowd or host than 'oy. (Murasaki 2025: 103) Hokkaido Ainu nouns do not distinguish singular and plural forms, whereas Sakhalin Ainu forms plurals by suffixing -(a)hcin / -(a)hsin. (Nakagawa 2024: 110) Sakhalin Ainu has the nominal plural suffixes -(a)hcin (Western), -(a)hsin (Eastern), and -utah ~ -utara. (Nakagawa 2024: 259) The Sakhalin Ainu plural suffix -(a)hcin cannot be analyzed as an exponent of a grammatical category of nominal number, since it is not obligatory and can attach to complementizers. (Nakagawa 2024: 261) In Sakhalin Ainu, the affiliative form takes -hcin when either the possessor or the possessed entity is plural. (Tangiku 2022: 9.4) In Sakhalin Ainu, the plural suffix -hcin attaches exclusively to the affiliative (possessed) form of nouns. (Tangiku 2022: 9.6) In Sakhalin Ainu, when there are multiple possessors and a singular possessee, -hcin attaches after the affiliative suffix to agree with the plural possessor. (Tangiku 2022: 9.6) In Sakhalin Ainu, when there is a single possessor and multiple possessees, -hcin attaches after the affiliative suffix to agree with the plural possessees. (Tangiku 2022: 9.6)