Knowledge base · Part VI — Word Classes and Nominal Morphology · this topic as a network
40. Deverbal and Denominal Noun Derivation (Lexical Nominalizer Morphology)
How does Hokkaido Ainu derive lexical nouns from verbs and nouns using nominalizers?
Prefixing chi- to a verb forms a participial adjective, which is generally a past participle but can rarely be a present participle. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The suffix -ke (or -he) attaches to roots to form nouns, as in ar-ke 'half', kim-ke 'mountain', or-ke 'place', pan-ke 'downriver', pen-ke 'upriver', and rep-ke 'offshore'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The ending -ma functions as a noun-forming ending, as seen in nima 'wooden bowl' (from ni 'tree') and tesma 'snowshoes'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The suffix -ram forms abstract nouns, as in kemram 'famine' and ponram 'childhood/youth'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936)
Scope: lexical word-formation and the syntactic cut
What is the boundary between lexical word-formation and syntactic nominalization in Hokkaido Ainu?
Lexical nominalizations in Ainu are derived with light head nouns such as hi 'thing/place/time', pe 'thing/person', and kur 'man'. (Bugaeva 2016) In Ainu, nouns derived by attaching a prefix to a verb in principle do not exist. (Satō 2008: 266) Nominalizing suffixes appear to function both as lexical derivational suffixes and as syntactic clausal nominalizers. (Shibatani 1990: 34)
The -p/-pe nominalizer at word level
How does the nominalizer -p/-pe operate at the word level in Hokkaido Ainu?
The suffix -p(e) derives a noun denoting a person or thing characterized by the meaning of the base verb. (Shibatani 1990: 32)
Allomorphy
What conditions the allomorphy of the nominalizer -p/-pe in Hokkaido Ainu?
Lexicalized agent/patient nominals
How are lexicalized agent and patient nominals formed with -p/-pe in Hokkaido Ainu?
Arity-slot nominalizations: ci= and a= with -p
How does Hokkaido Ainu form lexicalized nominals with ci= and a= prefixes and -p?
The noun amip 'clothing' originates from a phrase consisting of the inflected form a-mi 'one wears' with the indefinite personal prefix a- plus the nominalizer p 'thing', which became established as an individual word. (Satō 2008: 269) In ci-kuy-pas 'chewed ash', ci- has a nominative meaning but has low productivity and should be regarded as a derivational prefix rather than a personal affix. (Satō 2008: 269) The prefix ci- (c- before vowels), originally a fourth-person affix, functions as a prefix that nominalizes transitive verbs, and is mainly used in the elevated/poetic register. (Satō 2008: 304)
The lexical–syntactic boundary
What criteria distinguish lexical from syntactic nominalizations in Hokkaido Ainu?
The affiliative suffix as nominalizer: -i/-hi and -e/-we
How does Hokkaido Ainu use the affiliative suffix -i/-hi as a derivational nominalizer?
The suffix -hV forms verbal nouns meaning 'the fact that, the thing that'. (Murasaki 2025: 103) The suffix -i derives nouns with the meaning 'X-place' or 'X-time', while -ike derives nouns with the meaning 'thing' or 'person'. (Shibatani 1990: 32)
Lexical class-noun heads: kur and usi/uske
How do the nouns kur and usi/uske function as denominative heads in Hokkaido Ainu?
Zero-conversion and the verb–noun interface
How does Hokkaido Ainu handle zero-conversion between verbs and nouns?
One-argument (intransitive) verbs in Ainu can undergo zero-conversion to form nouns without morphological modification. (Nakagawa 2024: 120, Satō 2025) Class II verbs can often be used directly as nouns without morphological modification. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) When a Class I verb combines with an object noun or a prefix, it converts to Class II and can thus be used directly as a noun. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) All verbs formed by detransitivizing i- can be converted into nouns. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The words yukar and uepeker are underlyingly intransitive verbs meaning 'recite a yukar' and 'tell a uepeker', and yukar can take the causative suffix -e to form yukare 'cause someone to recite a yukar'. (Nakagawa 2024: 120) The intransitive verb ipe 'eat / have a meal' converts to a noun meaning 'meal', which underwent semantic extensions to 'food', 'kernel/contents of a nut', 'blade of a sword', and 'contents of a song/speech'. (Nakagawa 2024: 121) The transitive verb e 'eat' does not undergo zero-conversion to a noun or the semantic shift seen in ipe. (Nakagawa 2024: 121) Compounds consisting of a possessed noun subject plus an intransitive verb can be converted directly into agentive nouns without any derivational affixes, as in sapa-kay 'dried headless salmon' (literally 'head-breaks'). (Satō 2008: 275)
Grammaticalization cline and the Sakhalin contrast
How do lexical nominalizers in Hokkaido Ainu extend along a grammaticalization cline?
Lexical nominalizers in Ainu diachronically originate in relative clauses with fully-fledged nominal heads that became reanalyzed successively as nominalizing words and then nominalizing suffixes. (Bugaeva 2016) Unlike Hokkaido Ainu (np…) v nmz, the Sakhalin Ainu v-poss form is not used for lexical nominalization, although it functions in clausal nominalization, adverbial clauses, modal/evidential sentences, and main clauses. (Bugaeva 2016) In Karafuto Ainu, unlike Hokkaido dialects, a verb can be nominalized by suffixing -hV to the verb. (Tangiku 2022: 9.8) If a verb ends in an open syllable, the nominalizing suffix -hV is formed using the final vowel, yielding the forms -ha, -he, -hi, -ho, and -hu. (Tangiku 2022: 9.8) If a verb ends in a closed syllable, the nominalizing suffix -ihi is added. (Tangiku 2022: 9.8) A noun formed with the -hV nominalizing suffix expresses an individual, specific event. (Tangiku 2022: 9.8) The nominalizing suffix -hV is used in presuppositional contexts. (reported in Tangiku 2022: 9.8)