Knowledge base · Part XIV — Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Modality · this topic as a network
114. Imperative and Prohibitive (Directive Mood)
How does the language form positive and negative directives, and how does it distinguish singular from plural or polite addressees?
Overview: the directive mood
What forms and distinctions make up the directive mood system of the language?
Imperative sentences are formed with a verb form that omits or lacks subject personal affixes (Satō 2008: 23, 128, Kindaichi & Chiri 1936, Shibatani 1990). Interjections such as hokure and hetak frequently introduce imperative sentences (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936). The markers yan, ro, and na are sentence-final elements associated with imperative sentences (Refsing 1986: 34). In Sakhalin Ainu, the final particle koh forms an imperative restricted to social inferiors such as children (Murasaki 2025: 38).
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The bare-stem singular imperative
How does the language form an imperative directed at a single addressee?
An imperative addressed to a single addressee is formed with a verb lacking subject personal affixes (Nakagawa 2024: 422). A verb form lacking subject affixes is formally ambiguous between a singular imperative addressed to the second person and a third-person declarative clause (Nakagawa 2024: 422, Satō 2008: 23). In Hokkaido Ainu imperative sentences, the clause-final syllable is normally pronounced high and long, distinguishing them prosodically from declarative sentences (Satō 2008: 128). In Sakhalin Ainu, the singular imperative is expressed by the bare verb stem uttered with terminal rising intonation (Murasaki 2025: 38). Imperatives formed by using the bare verb carry a rough or hasty nuance (Satō 2008: 23). In the Ishikari dialect, the sentence-final particle ya attaches to singular verb forms to mark a singular imperative (Nakagawa 2024: 422, Nakagawa & Fukazawa 2022: 8.4). The particle ora appears to function to emphasize commands (Satō 2008: 67). In Shizunai, transitive verbs that normally require an overt object may occasionally occur without an object in imperative clauses (Refsing 1986: 141).
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The plural and polite imperative: yan
How does the language mark an imperative as plural or polite?
The sentence-final particle yan marks polite commands, being used for plural addressees and also for polite directives addressed to a single person (Bugaeva 2008, Satō 2008: 128, Nakagawa 2024: 422, Refsing 1986: 203, Shibatani 1990). When the addressee is plural, a plural verb stem cannot be used alone as an imperative, and yan is obligatory, attaching to the plural verb stem if the verb distinguishes number (Bugaeva 2012: 496–497, Murasaki 2025: 38, Nakagawa 2022: 17.3, Nakagawa 2024: 422, Satō 2008: 129). As a rule, hani is used for singular commands while yan is used for plural commands, but yan can be polite singular and yan hani plural polite (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936). Satō proposes that yan is underlyingly a plural addressee marker, deriving its polite nuance toward a single addressee pragmatically through indirectness (proposed in Satō 2008: 128). In Shizunai Ainu, the final particle yan may indicate either a plural subject or a plural object in an imperative predicate (Refsing 1986: 203). In Hokkaido Ainu, the imperative particle yan may take the allomorphic shape an following a consonant (Satō 2008: 229).
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Softeners and benefactive requests: hani and wa kore
How does the language soften a directive or form a benefactive request?
The sentence-final particle hani can be added to an imperative to soften the tone and provide reassurance or urging (Nakagawa 2024: 422, Shibatani 1990). Following a consonant, hani often loses initial h and takes the form ani (Nakagawa 2024: 422). In southwestern Hokkaido, the verb sequence wa pirka functions as a polite directive construction (Bugaeva 2012: 494–495). Adding a benefactive imperative auxiliary like wa en=kore expresses a polite request rather than a plain command (Nakagawa 2024: 423, Refsing 1986: 203). In Hokkaido Ainu, the auxiliary collocation wa kore is used exclusively in directive expressions and does not appear in declarative clauses (Satō 2008: 88).
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The prohibitive: iteki and its dialect variants
How does the language express a negative directive (prohibition)?
Indirect and mitigated directives
How does the language form indirect or mitigated directives?
Proper imperative verb forms are restricted in usage to direct speech and main clauses (Bugaeva 2008). Mild imperatives can be formed using elements such as nankor, kus-ne, and kuni-p (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936). Modal constructions such as yak pirka, kusu ne na, p ne na, and nankor na convey imperative meanings when used with second-person subjects, requiring subject personal affixes (Nakagawa 2024: 423). A verb inflected for a second-person subject followed by kusu ne na expresses an imperative or directive meaning (Satō 2008: 129, 193). In the Saru dialect, the construction eci-... kusu ne na functions as a directive addressed to second-person plural subjects (Satō 2008: 291). The particle sequence nankor na takes on an imperative meaning specifically when used with the second person (Nakagawa 2024: 310). In Hokkaido Ainu, the conditional construction yak pirka ('it is good if...') is frequently used with an imperative sense (Nakagawa 2024: 349). Satō proposes that constructions using second-person subject personal affixes, such as kusu ne na or yak pirka, serve as admonitions or indirect directives rather than simple bare imperatives (proposed in Satō 2008: 129). In Sakhalin Ainu, request forms are formed by verb-final particles kanne, waa, and koh, descending in politeness in that order (Murasaki 2025: 38).
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Person marking in the directive clause
How does person marking on the verb differ in directive clauses compared to declarative clauses?
In the imperative, verbs lack subject person-and-number marking but must take object person marking when transitive (Bugaeva 2008, Bugaeva 2012: 496–497, Nakagawa 2024: 422, Satō 2008: 127). Affixing a second-person subject prefix to a verb to form an imperative is ungrammatical (Satō 2008: 23). In Hokkaido Ainu, imperative forms never take subject personal affixes, standing as an exception to the general rule of obligatory subject marking on verbs (Satō 2008: 128). The imperative does not take second-person nominative affixes because the argument slot is pragmatically satisfied by imperative modality (Satō 2023). In Shizunai Ainu, imperative sentences are characterized by the omission of the verbal nominative pronominal affix (Refsing 1986: 79, 203). In Hokkaido Ainu, the independent second-person pronoun eani is attested in an imperative sentence, but this usage is extremely rare (Satō 2008: 128).
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