Knowledge base · Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation · this topic as a network
84. The Reflexive yay-
How does a language express coreference between subject and object on a verb?
The reflexive yay- in the valency system
How does a reflexive prefix reduce transitivity and indicate coreference with the subject?
Ainu possesses two reflexive prefixes meaning 'oneself (acc/dat)': yay- and si- (Satō 2008: 249). When transitive subject and object are coreferential, reflexivization is marked by the reflexive prefixes yay- or si- rather than by combinations of personal affixes (Nakagawa 2024: 170). Reflexive actions in which the subject and direct or indirect object are coreferential are expressed by verbs prefixed with yai- (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936). In Shizunai Ainu, the prefix yay- derives reflexive expressions where the subject and object of the verb are coreferential (Refsing 1986). Attached to verbs, yai- expresses the reflexive meanings 'to oneself' or 'oneself', although it frequently yields a middle-voice meaning (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936). When prefixed to a monotransitive verb, reflexive yay- or reciprocal 'u- fulfills the object role and typically turns the verb into an intransitive verb (Tamura 1972: 35). Personal affixes switch from transitive to intransitive forms when yay- derives an intransitive verb from a transitive one (Shibatani 1990: 48). In Saru Ainu, yay- is used not only for direct actions upon oneself, but also for quasi-directed actions such as commanding one's own companions (Satō 2008: 290).
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Morphological range and the possessive yay-
What range of verb classes and nominal bases does a reflexive prefix attach to, and what possessive function can it have on nouns?
The reflexive prefixes yay- and si- belong to derivation rather than inflection, as they cannot attach freely to any verb or locational noun (Satō 2008: 251). The prefix yay- has a primary reflexive function along with reflexive-possessive, autocausative, and occasionally anticausative functions (Bugaeva 2012: 488–489). When attached to nouns, yai- expresses 'mere/ordinary', 'only one / one's own only', and 'one's own' (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936). Both yay- and si- can attach as possessors to category 1 locative nouns and to incorporated body part nouns (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4). Phonologically, yai-ewen contracts to yayewen (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936), yai-omap contracts to yayómap (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936), and yai-shitoma contracts to yashtoma (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936). In Shizunai Ainu, some verb forms prefixed with yay- are completely lexicalized, such that their reflexive origin is evident only through etymological analysis, as in yaynu 'think' from nu 'listen' and yaytura 'be alone' from tura 'join' (Refsing 1986). Furthermore, the adjunct-reducing prefixes yay-, u-, and si- do not appear to have undergone decay in Shizunai Ainu (Refsing 1986: 32).
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Self-affecting verb classes: grooming, emotion, and self-transformation
Which semantic verb classes most productively take a reflexive prefix?
The reflexive prefix yay- derives the transitive verb yay-ko-ruska 'to be angry at oneself about something' from the ditransitive verb ko-ruska (Satō 2023).
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The yay-/si- distinction: competing analyses
What is the functional difference between two competing reflexive prefixes?
Both yay- and si- are translated as 'oneself' and express reflexive voice, but si- has restrictions on the verbs it prefixes to, while yay- attaches relatively freely to any verb as well as to intransitive verbs and common nouns with an arity of 0 (Nakagawa 2024: 187). Ainu thus possesses two reflexive prefixes: canonical or direct reflexive yay- and indirect reflexive si- (Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4). The distinction between yay- and si- is analyzed as a contrast between volitional or intentional reflexivity and non-volitional or spontaneous reflexivity (reported in Nakagawa 2024: 187, Satō 2008: 249, Shibatani 1990: 48), whereas another analysis treats it as an opposition between direct reflexivity, where the subject acts directly, and indirect reflexivity, where the action relies on or involves other people (reported in Bugaeva & Kobayashi 2022: 15.4, 15.6, Nakagawa 2024: 188; proposed in Satō 2008: 250). Demonstrating the volitional distinction, yai-pusu 'emerge' is volitional whereas shi-pusu expresses involuntary emergence (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936).
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Stacking with applicatives and the verb-word template
How does a reflexive prefix combine with applicative prefixes, and how does this affect transitivity?
In Hokkaido Ainu, the reflexive prefix yay- functions as the equivalent of an object of the verb, whereas yay-ko- plays an adverbial role (Nakagawa 2024: 211). The combination yai-ko means 'toward oneself', 'against oneself', or 'by oneself alone' (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936). When reflexive yay- applies to an applicative object while the direct object is retained, the verb complex remains transitive (Shibatani 1990: 48). Nakagawa proposes that si- is closer to a word-formation affix positioned closer to the root, observing that yay- can appear outside si-, as in yay-si-turi-re 'stretch one's body out and lie down', whereas si- never appears outside yay- (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 188).
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