Knowledge base · Part XI — Valency, Voice, and Noun Incorporation · this topic as a network
79. The e- Applicative
What types of oblique arguments does the e- applicative promote to object?
Valency effect and position
What is the valency effect and position of the e- applicative?
Applicatives in e- can introduce fundamental non-peripheral roles such as Theme-Patient or Content as well as peripheral oblique relations, thereby functioning as a non-causative transitivizer. (Bugaeva 2006: 191) Thematic applicatives in Ainu are proposed to have originated from the instrumental applicative based on a three-argument schema. (proposed in Bugaeva 2012: 482–483) When a complete intransitive verb takes an affix (such as the applicative prefix e- 'at, with, to') and comes to require an object or complement, it shifts to Class I conjugation. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) When the prefix e- is attached to a Class II (intransitive) verb, the verb shifts to Class I (transitive). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The prefix e- represents three distinct morphemes: an applicative prefix with arity +1, an affiliative-equivalent nominal prefix meaning 'head of' with arity 0, and the personal affix e= with arity -1. (Nakagawa 2024: 139)
Sub-types and semantic roles of the applied object
What semantic roles can the applied object of the e- applicative take?
The applicative prefix e- can express an instrumental relation meaning 'with' or 'by means of', corresponding to the postposition ari. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936, Shibatani 1990: 66) The applicative prefix e- can express an oblique topic or reference meaning 'about' or 'concerning' that entity. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The verb esinki 'to get tired of' is derived by attaching the applicative prefix e- to the intransitive verb sinki 'to get tired'. (Satō 2008: 244, 287) The e- applicatives expressing the semantic role of Content are the most productive of all semantic classes of applicatives in Ainu. (Bugaeva 2006) The applicative prefix e- indicates location, both stationary and motion, meaning 'at/in (there)' referring to a preceding noun (equivalent to postposition ta). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The applicative prefix e- indicates direction of motion, meaning 'to (there)' (equivalent to postposition un). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The applicative prefix e- in a-e-resu cross-references the preceding noun phrase pirka chi-e-kuni-p ('good food') and expresses the meaning 'with it' (e.g., pirka chi-e-kuni-p a-e-resu = pirka chi-e-kuni-p ari a-i-resu). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) In usa-orushpe a-e-u-ko-itak, the prefix e- cross-references the preceding usa-orushpe ('various things') and expresses the meaning 'about that'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) Attaching the applicative prefix e- to the transitive verb tuye 'to cut' derives the ditransitive verb e-tuye (+3) 'to cut something with something', allowing both the cut entity and the cutting instrument to appear as bare noun phrases. (Nakagawa 2024: 193) The uses of the applicative prefix e- are broadly divided into those requiring a locational object and those not requiring a locational object. (Nakagawa 2024: 194) The non-locational uses of the applicative prefix e- are subdivided into those paraphrasable with the case particle ani (ari) 'with, by means of', those paraphrasable with the conjunctive particle kusu 'in order to', and those not paraphrasable by other constructions. (Nakagawa 2024: 194) When the object of the applicative e- corresponds to a purpose clause paraphrasable with kusu 'in order to', the verb serving as its object is restricted to one-argument intransitive verbs, which are treated as nouns. (Nakagawa 2024: 195) The locational use of the applicative prefix e- is frequently used in verse, but is relatively rare in prose. (Nakagawa 2024: 196) The applicative prefixes e- (in its 4th use) and o- select a <place> argument and can derive locative object verbs from non-locative object verbs. (Nakagawa 2024: 213) Unmarked nouns denoting position or goal followed by a prefixed verb are rare in Shizunai material, while unmarked nouns denoting means followed by a verb prefixed with e- are somewhat more frequent. (Refsing 1986: 32) The prefix e- indicates the means by which, or the circumstances under which, something happens, often referring back to the sum of what has been described directly before and presenting the result or conclusion. (Refsing 1986: 183) When the applicative prefix e- is attached to the intransitive verb cípo 'to operate a boat', it derives the transitive verb ecipo 'to operate a boat with (something)'. (Satō 2008: 240) While inkar is an intransitive verb meaning 'to direct one's eyes / look', attaching the prefix e- derives einkar, a transitive verb meaning 'to look at things with (something)'. (Satō 2008: 242) nomi 'to worship/celebrate' (two-argument verb) becomes enomi 'to worship/celebrate ... with ...' (three-argument verb) by adding the applicative prefix e-. (Satō 2008: 244) otke 'to stab' (two-argument verb) becomes eotke 'to thrust/stab ... into ...' (three-argument verb) by adding the applicative prefix e-. (Satō 2008: 244) rok 'to sit (plural)' (one-argument verb) becomes erok 'to sit at/on' (two-argument verb) by adding the applicative prefix e-. (Satō 2008: 244) hoyupu 'to run' (one-argument verb) becomes ehoyupu 'to run accompanying (something)' (two-argument verb) by adding the applicative prefix e-. (Satō 2008: 244) The transitive verb ekira ('run away with someone') consists of kira ('run away') affixed with the applicative prefix e-. (Satō 2008: 329) The applicative prefixes e- and o- can express a locative relation corresponding to the postposition ta. (Shibatani 1990) The applicative prefixes e- and ko- can express an allative relation corresponding to the postpositions ta and un. (Shibatani 1990)
Content and Theme-Patient: the dominant and non-oblique uses
What are the most common semantic roles of the e- applicative object and what is their source?
eysoytak ('to narrate sth.') consists of isoytak ('to narrate') with the applicative prefix e- attached. (Satō 2008: 313)
Lexicalized forms and the preverb question
How does the language distinguish the applicative e- from homophonous prefixes?
A prenominal modifier modifying hi meaning 'place' is ungrammatical without marking the locative relationship, e.g., *tun hotke hi is ungrammatical and must be expressed as tun ehotke hi. (Nakagawa 2024: 511) In some regions, the telephone is called a-e-y-nu-p, an instrumental nominalization formed from a- 'we', e- 'with which', i-nu 'hear voices/sounds', and p 'thing'. (reported in Ōno 2022: 12.8) etoyta 'to plant' is formed by attaching the applicative prefix e- to toyta 'to cultivate a field', showing semantic change from its literal meaning 'to cultivate a field with (something)'. (Satō 2008: 241) The verb etoyta is analyzed as composed of the applicative prefix e- and the incorporated verb toy-ta ('soil' + 'dig'). (Satō 2008) The verb etoyposo is analyzed as composed of the possessor-adding prefix e- and the incorporated verb toy-poso ('soil' + 'pass through'). (Satō 2008)
Stacking, re-applicativization, and the feeding of noun incorporation
Can the e- applicative stack with other applicatives, and what is the result?
Most thematic applicatives are formed on derived intransitive bases containing either noun incorporation or valency-decreasing morphology (antipassive i- or anticausative si-). (Bugaeva 2012: 482–483) The postpositional phrase construction wakka korachi notaku een poro mukar shi-sempir ta a-ani can alternate with the incorporated applicative structure wakka korachi notaku een poro mukar a-e-shi-sempir-ani, where e- cross-references the axe as direct object. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936)