Knowledge base · Part IV — Prosody and the Pitch-Accent System · this topic as a network
26. Accent in Compounds and under Affixation and Cliticization
How does Hokkaido Ainu reorganize accent in compounds, and when affixes and clitics attach?
The prosodic word and accent reapplication
What is the role of the prosodic word in accent placement in Hokkaido Ainu?
An incorporated noun-verb combination behaves phonologically as a single word, with the result that only a single accent is retained and the accent of the verb weakens or disappears, as illustrated by turep-ta (Satō 2008: 222).
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Compound nouns: first-element priority
How does Hokkaido Ainu assign accent in compound nouns?
In compound words formed from two or more independent words, the general tendency is for only the accent of the initial element to be retained and for the whole compound to be treated as a single word, as seen in kamúy and nomí yielding kamúynomi, and hórka and reyé yielding hórkareyep (Nakagawa 2024: 54). When the initial element of a compound is monosyllabic, accent is placed on that initial element, as in ni and tek yielding nítek (Nakagawa 2024: 54). Secondary accents belonging to non-initial stems are deleted in compound words and noun-incorporation structures (Satō 2022: 16.2). More generally, in morphosyntactically complex forms the primary accent falls on the first element and accent on subsequent elements is reduced, with the stem taking priority over derivational suffixes (reported in Shiraishi 2022: 13.5). When the first element is CVC and the second element is vowel-initial, however, accent is often assigned according to the iambic rule rather than the first-element priority rule (reported in Shiraishi 2022: 13.5). A compound may also shift its accent to follow the iambic rule when it becomes lexicalized and speakers perceive it as monomorphemic (reported in Shiraishi 2022: 13.5).
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Derivational prefixes
How do derivational prefixes affect accent in Hokkaido Ainu?
When derivational prefixes attach, the prefixed form is treated as a single word and the general accent principles apply, which may shift the accent from the stem's original position, as illustrated by iták and yáykoytak, and puní and epúni (Nakagawa 2024: 53).
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Causative suffixes and the lexicalized koré
How do causative suffixes affect accent in Hokkaido Ainu?
The archaic causative suffix -V shifts accent placement, whereas the productive causative suffix -re/-e/-te does not shift accent (Bugaeva 2014). More specifically, the allomorphic causative suffix -re/-e/-te does not affect accentuation in Hokkaido/southwest Ainu (Bugaeva 2012: 466–467). Suffixes generally do not affect accent position, but when causative suffixes -re, -te, or -e attach to monosyllabic verbs, the accent remains on the stem syllable, producing exceptions to Principle 2, as in ére, kúre, and káre (Nakagawa 2024: 53). When -re is suffixed to a monosyllabic verb stem to make it disyllabic, the accent position does not change, as in e 'eat' yielding é-re 'feed', whereas when -e is suffixed to an r-final stem to make it disyllabic, the accent shifts to the second syllable, as in kór 'have' yielding koré 'give' (Satō 2008: 234). In some lexicalized causatives, the suffix -re/-e/-te shifts accentuation in accordance with the accent rules, as in kor 'have' yielding ko.r-e 'make/let have, give' (Bugaeva 2012: 500–501). Nakagawa 2024 asserts that in the causative verb kore 'give' derived from kor 'have', the accent is the regular koré rather than kóre because awareness of it as a derived form has weakened (Nakagawa 2024: 53). When a suffix or word-final element becomes fully lexicalized with the stem into a single unit, the accent shifts to the second syllable under rule (4), as in kayé, tuyé, and hashínau (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936).
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Person-affix accent
How do person-marking affixes affect accent in Hokkaido Ainu?
Most personal prefixes trigger relocation of the word accent (Shiraishi 2022: 13.5). The phonological alternations and accent shifts that occur when personal affixes attach to nouns are identical to those in transitive verb inflection: ku- and e- shift accent to the following syllable, whereas eci- and a- retain the original accent; before vowel-initial stems ku- becomes k- and ci- becomes c-, taking the accent (Satō 2008: 155).
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The shifting class: ku=, e=, ci=, en=
How do the shifting person prefixes ku=, e=, ci= affect accent in Hokkaido Ainu?
The prefixes ku- '1sg.nom', ci- '1pl.excl.nom', and e- '2sg.nom' shift the accent of the verb to the immediately following syllable (Satō 2008: 111). When ku=, e=, or ci= attach to a word whose base had an open first syllable, the prefixed form is treated as a single word and Principle 2 causes the accent to shift one syllable leftward onto the base's original first syllable, as in hopúni yielding ku=hópuni and nanú yielding e=nánu (Nakagawa 2024: 52). In Saru and Chitose dialects, ku= and ci= contract to k= and c= before stems beginning with a, u, e, or o after accent shift has occurred, resulting in surface accent on the fused initial syllable, as in omáre yielding k=ómare and etú yielding c=étu (Nakagawa 2024: 52). In those same dialects, when ku= or e= precedes an open initial syllable beginning with i-, vowel weakening turns i into the coda glide y of the first syllable, so that ku=i- becomes kuy- and e=i- becomes ey-, placing the accent on the first syllable, as in ipe yielding kúype and itak yielding éytak (Nakagawa 2024: 52). Before stems starting with i whose first syllable is closed, however, the i → y weakening after ku= or e= does not occur because it would create an impossible CCC cluster, resulting in forms such as kuínkar and kuíkka (Nakagawa 2024: 53). Attaching ku= to the verb mokór causes the pitch accent to shift to the prefix, producing ku mókor (Nakagawa 2024: 60).
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The non-shifting class: a=, eci=
How do the non-shifting person prefixes a= and eci= behave with respect to accent in Hokkaido Ainu?
The personal prefixes a- and eci- do not alter the accent placement of the stem to which they attach (Nakagawa 2024: 53, Satō 2008: 111; reported in Shiraishi 2022: 13.5). Bugaeva 2022 further asserts that the inflectional person prefix a- does not affect accent placement at all and can be analyzed as extrametrical (Bugaeva 2022: 20.6).
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Secondary accent on personal-number suffixes
How does Hokkaido Ainu assign secondary accent on personal-number suffixes?
Personal suffixes such as -as and -an carry a secondary accent alongside the accent located on the verb stem (reported in Shiraishi 2022: 13.5). This secondary accent on a personal suffix is lost when the verb stem is monosyllabic of the shape (C)VC (reported in Shiraishi 2022: 13.5).
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Accent-neutral suffixes: -pa and the affiliative -hV
How do the accent-neutral suffixes -pa and -hV behave in Hokkaido Ainu?
When a closed monosyllabic noun takes the affiliative suffix, accent shifts to the second syllable, as in shik yielding shikíhi, mat yielding machíhi, and kap yielding kapúhu, whereas an open monosyllabic noun keeps the accent on the first syllable, as in pa yielding páha, ko yielding kóho, and re yielding réhe (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936).
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