Knowledge base · Part IX — The Verb: Structure, Transitivity, and Verbal Number · this topic as a network
60. Denominal and Deverbal Verb Derivation
How does Hokkaido Ainu derive verbs from nouns and from other verbs without changing valency?
The verbal derivational suffix -an 'become NOUN' grammaticalized from the singular existential verb an 'to be'. (Alonso de la Fuente 2022: 5.3) The verbal derivational suffix -sak ~ -nak, forming verbs of absence, grammaticalized from the verb sak 'to lack'. (Alonso de la Fuente 2022: 5.3) Attached to certain nouns, -kor forms a verb meaning 'possess or have (that which the noun signifies)'. (Refsing 1986: 147) The suffix -ma attaches to a few nouns to form verbs having to do with depositing. (Refsing 1986: 147) The suffix -nu added to certain nouns forms verbs denoting the possession of that which the noun expresses. (Refsing 1986: 147) The suffix -sak forms verbs indicating the absence of that which the noun signifies, and it has an allomorph -nak in siknak 'be blind'. (Refsing 1986: 147) The suffix -us denotes that the noun which it follows is attached to something. (Refsing 1986: 149)
Overview
What distinguishes non-valency verb derivation from valency-changing operations?
Attached to non-temporal nouns, the suffix -an forms a stative verb expressing the quality of possessing what the noun denotes. (Refsing 1986: 146, 145) The verbal stem without affixes can in some cases be analyzed as consisting of a root (generally a nominal) and a verb formative. (proposed in Refsing 1986: 140) A bare verbal stem without affixes can in some cases be analysed as consisting of a root, generally a nominal, and a verb formative. (proposed in Refsing 1986: 140) Verb-formative morphemes in Ainu attach to a nominal root to form an intransitive verb, where the base noun is either the subject or the object of the formative's verbal content. (Refsing 1986: 145) Verbs created by verb formatives are lexicalized forms, and the verb formatives are not productive morphemes. (Refsing 1986: 145) Verb formative morphemes are monosyllabic, turn a nominal root into an intransitive verb, and are not productive. (Refsing 1986: 146) The suffix -asnu derives the verb tum-asnu 'to be healthy, vigorous' from tum 'strength', and -ekatta derives soy-ekatta 'to put out abruptly' from soy 'outside'. (Satō 2008: 273) Some intransitive verbs are formed by attaching an intransitive-forming suffix to a bound root (or reduplicated root), such as pun-un-atki '(rumor) to spread intensely', cak-ke 'to open', mak-kosanu 'to become suddenly bright', rim-natara 'for thumping sounds to continue', kew-rototke 'for a loud sound to echo', and wó-se 'to howl'. (Satō 2008: 274) Verbs with the intransitive-forming suffix -kosanpa are rare. (Satō 2008: 274) A number of verbs compound with nouns to generate new verbal forms. (Shibatani 1990)
Denominal ambient predicates
How does the language form zero-place ambient predicates from bound nominal roots?
Suffixed to temporal expressions, the suffix -an forms a verb meaning 'to become (that time)'. (Refsing 1986: 145, 146) The suffix -as forms verbs expressing events without an agent, such as weather phenomena, unexplained sounds, or spontaneous occurrences. (Refsing 1986: 145, 146) The verbal suffix -at forms verbs expressing the emission of something. (Refsing 1986: 145, 146) The suffix -an, originally a verb meaning 'to exist', attaches to time nouns to verbalize them with the meaning 'to become / arrive (of a time/season)'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The denominal verbalizer -o, originally a verb meaning 'to enter, attach, ride, put in', derives verbs from nouns. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The denominal verbalizer -kor, originally a verb meaning 'to have', derives verbs from nouns. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The verb mokor 'to sleep' originally meant 'to have quietness' (mo-kor). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The suffix -nu derives verbs from nouns and sound words. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The suffix -ma derives verbs from nominal bases and roots. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The verbal suffix -se means 'to emit the sound of...' and forms onomatopoeic verbs. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The suffix -ki forms verbs from nouns, as in hap-ki 'to express gratitude', saimon-ki 'to undergo the boiling-water ordeal', tasum-ki 'to fall ill', and hau-ki 'to speak'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The verb formative -ke is not found as an independent verb, but it follows onomatopoeic words or nouns denoting the manufacturing of the object. (Refsing 1986: 147) The morpheme -se attaches to onomatopoeic stems (both phonomimes and phenomimes) and turns them into verbs. (Refsing 1986: 147) The element sir- originally meant 'land' or 'place' and functions like a prefix in expressions of meteorological or ambient conditions. (Shibatani 1990)
The copula ne as a denominal predicate head
How does the copula ne combine with a noun to form a two-place predicate?
The verbal derivational suffix -ne, forming dynamic verbs, grammaticalized from the copula ne 'to be'. (Alonso de la Fuente 2022: 5.3) The word ekimne may be divided into morphemes as e-kim-ne (head.POSS.PF-mountains-COP). (proposed in Bugaeva 2022: 20.2) The denominal verbalizer -ne, meaning 'to be' or 'to become', derives verbs from nouns. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The copula -ne added to nouns may form dynamic verbs or stative verbs used only in attributive position. (Refsing 1986: 147)
kar and the word–phrase boundary
How does the transitive verb kar allow noun phrases to function as its object and lexicalize into verb stems?
The verb nukar 'to see' historically derives from the root nu 'eye' and the verbalizer -kar. (proposed in Kindaichi & Chiri 1936, Refsing 1986: 147) Suffixed to certain nouns, the verb formative -kar denotes an action involving that noun. (Refsing 1986: 145, 146) The verbal derivational suffix -kar, forming action verbs, grammaticalized from the verb kar 'to make'. (Alonso de la Fuente 2022: 5.3) The denominal verbalizer -kar, originally a verb meaning 'to make, strike', derives verbs from nouns. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936)
Deverbal derivation without valency change
What deverbal processes modify the verb's form or aspect without changing its argument structure?
Attached to stative verbs, the suffix -ko forms the antonym or negative opposite of the base verb. (Refsing 1986: 187) The suffix -tek follows stative verbs to indicate a slight degree. (Refsing 1986: 187) As a verbal suffix, -ruy indicates an extraordinary degree. (Refsing 1986: 187) The verbal suffixes -kosanpa and -ekatta indicate suddenness of action and subsequent surprise on the part of the observer. (Refsing 1986: 187) The verbal derivational suffix -as, forming non-agentive verbs, grammaticalized from the verb as 'to stand'. (Alonso de la Fuente 2022: 5.3) The verbal derivational suffix -kor, forming possessive verbs, grammaticalized from the verb kor 'to have'. (Alonso de la Fuente 2022: 5.3) The suffix -kar can be added pleonastically to verbs without altering their meaning, as in nuinakar (= nuina 'to hide'). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The suffix -rototke expresses the consecutive repetition of a violent sound or action. (Nakagawa 2024: 206) The suffix -rototo expresses the repeated occurrence of a violent sound or action many times. (Nakagawa 2024: 206) The suffix -tektek expresses an instantaneous action and is clearly etymologically related to the auxiliary verb tek 'to do a little'. (proposed in Nakagawa 2024: 207) There is also a suffix -kar of the same form that attaches to transitive verbs without changing the meaning or increasing the valency. (Nakagawa 2024: 208) The suffix -no attaches to intransitive verbs to emphasize their meaning without changing valency. (Nakagawa 2024: 209) The intransitive verb ray 'die', when used as a verb prefix, indicates a violent degree. (Refsing 1986) The verb prefixes toy- and pit- both indicate an action of strength and generally appear in combination with the prefix ko-. (Refsing 1986) The prefix sir- indicates the suddenness of an action and is generally followed by ko- to indicate that the action is directed towards a goal. (Refsing 1986) Chiri called -tek 'the trivial aspect'. (reported in Refsing 1986: 187) Chiri termed the suffix -tek 'the trivial aspect'. (reported in Refsing 1986: 187) The negative auxiliary etoranne 'not want to bother' is derived from toranne 'idle'. (Refsing 1986: 211) In the Saru dialect, the verb suffix -tek indicates that something is done or happens 'lightly' or is of short duration. (reported in Refsing 1986: 246) The verb suffix -tek meaning 'lightly' or of short duration occurs in a few expressions in the Shizunai dialect as well. (Refsing 1986: 246) The verb ekimne 'to go hunting' can also be used as an adverb expressing the direction 'to the mountains'. (Satō 2008: 100) The verb cipta 'to carve a boat' is a compound verb formed by compounding cip 'boat' and ta 'to carve/dig'. (Satō 2008: 107) Verbs compounded of two intransitive verbs exist in Ainu, but examples are few (e.g., oman-an 'to walk around'). (Satō 2008: 272) Verbs can be formed by compounding an intransitive verb with a transitive verb (e.g., ahup-kar 'to receive', cis-kar 'to mourn / lament', hotuye-kar 'to call'). (Satō 2008: 272) Subjective personal prefixes can attach to verbs to derive verbs (e.g., a-sitoma 'to be fearful', ci-yasa 'to be torn'). (Satō 2008: 272) Verbs can be formed by prefixing an object personal affix to a noun plus a transitive verb, as in i-kes-anpa 'to chase after people' or i-sapa-kik 'to strike something's head'. (Satō 2008: 273) Verbs can be formed with possessive body-part prefixes, as in e-ca 'to cut the tip of something', e-kay 'for the tip of something to break', or o-asin 'for the bottom of something to come out'. (Satō 2008: 273) Adverbial prefixes can form complex verbs or adjectives, as in ru-emina 'to smile halfway', sí-poro 'really big', and ar-asitoma 'really terrifying'. (Satō 2008: 273) The intensive suffix -no attaches to verbs to express 'thoroughly' or 'well', as in cí-no 'to ripen thoroughly', kunne-no 'to become completely black', nú-no 'to listen well', and rayke-no 'to kill thoroughly'. (Satō 2008: 274) Transitive verbs formed by compounding an intransitive verb with a transitive verb (such as ahup-kar 'to receive', cis-kar 'to lament', and hotuye-kar 'to call') are relatively limited in number and likely represent a kind of euphemistic expression. (proposed in Satō 2008: 276) epuni consists of e- 'head/tip of ~' and puni 'raise/erect', literally meaning 'raise the head of the storehouse', likely referring to raised-floor storehouses on high stilts built to prevent rodent damage. (proposed in Satō 2008: 351) Although the prefix e- means 'head, tip of ~', instances where a transitive verb follows it are relatively rare (with exceptions such as ekupa 'bite in one's mouth'). (Satō 2008: 351) The element ma in the Ainu verb oma 'to insert' is an extension of the verb root o 'to insert'. (Vovin 2022: 6.6)
Transitivity pairs
Does the language allow the same verb stem to be used both intransitively and transitively?
The suffix -ke can attach to roots to form intransitive verbs or adjectives. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The suffixes -n and -p also function as intransitive-verb-forming suffixes. (Nakagawa 2022: 17.2) The suffixes -V and -pa function as transitive-verb-forming suffixes. (Nakagawa 2022: 17.2) The prefixes he- and ho- do not mean 'head' or 'rear' in isolation, but when prefixed to transitive verbs they semantically refer to the tip or rear/center of gravity of the object, deriving intransitive verbs. (Nakagawa 2024: 185) The prefix ho- attached to a verb indicates lifting the whole body by raising the center of gravity at the buttocks, meaning 'get up, stand up' from a lying or sitting position, or 'leap up, fly up' from a standing position. (Nakagawa 2024: 186) Although he- and ho- can form paired derivatives on the same verb, not every verb takes both prefixes; for example, hekiru 'turn around' exists, but ho-kiru is unattested. (Nakagawa 2024: 186) Forms like hoyupu 'run' (< ho- + yupu) and hotuye 'shout' (< ho- + tuye) lack matching he- forms (*heyupu, *hetuye), and their overall meanings are not transparent from summing the meanings of their parts. (Nakagawa 2024: 186) The suffix -natara attaches to CVC roots and expresses continuation of a state. (Nakagawa 2024: 204) The suffix -hitara attaches to (C)VCV stems and expresses continuation of a state. (Nakagawa 2024: 204) The suffix -itara attaches to (C)VCVC stems and expresses continuation of a state. (Nakagawa 2024: 205) The suffixes -natara, -hitara, and -itara are semantically shared in expressing continuous action or state, and which one is selected is determined by the phonological shape of the base to which it attaches. (Nakagawa 2024: 205) The suffix -natara attaches to CVC roots without transitivity distinctions and basically derives intransitive verbs. (Nakagawa 2024: 205) The suffix -itara often takes independent CVCVC words as stems and basically derives intransitive verbs. (Nakagawa 2024: 205) In contrast to -natara and -itara, -hitara attaches to CVCV stems and often derives transitive verbs. (Nakagawa 2024: 205) The suffix -atki expresses an action performed repeatedly, and according to the Saru dialect dictionary, it derives intransitive verbs and appears only on a limited set of specific words. (reported in Nakagawa 2024: 207)
Valency-changing derivation routed outward
How do applicatives, causatives, antipassive, reflexive, and reciprocal alter verb argument structure?
Class II division ii compound verbs are formed with prefixal elements such as he- ('face'), ho- ('buttocks'), or shi- ('self') prefixed to derived transitive verbs. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) While the nominal prefixes he- and ho- refer to a body part belonging to the subject/agent of the verb, e- and o- refer to a body part belonging to the object/patient of the verb. (Nakagawa 2024: 191) In certain dialects, initial h- is dropped, causing both he- and ho- to become e- and o- respectively, which makes them homophonous with the arity-0 nominal prefixes e- and o-. (Nakagawa 2024: 191) In directional adverbs formed by combining a prefix, a relational noun, and a verb, the pattern X + positional noun + asi requires X to be an arity -1 prefix (he- or ho-), whereas the pattern X + positional noun + ne requires X to be an arity 0 prefix (e- or o-). (Nakagawa 2024: 192) Directional formations such as he-rep-asi and e-kim-ne are structurally intransitive verbs (arity +1) by derivation, but undergo conversion to arity 0 when used adverbially. (Nakagawa 2024: 192) The prefix ci- can function to derive a spontaneous intransitive verb from a transitive verb, or to turn a transitive verb into a nominal form. (Satō 2008: 207) The verb satsatu has a morphological form where the transitive suffix -u is attached to the stem satsat-, which is a reduplication of the root sat-. (Satō 2008: 325)
Ijäs's L2–L3 framework
How does a pedagogical framework classify verbs by the number of arguments (zero-place to three-place)?