Knowledge base · Part VIII — Pronouns, Demonstratives, Postpositions, and Numerals · this topic as a network
55. Numeral Classifiers, Ordinals, and Quantifier Syntax
How do numeral words, classifiers, ordinals, and quantifiers behave syntactically in Hokkaido Ainu?
The three numeral word-classes and the classifier alternation
What distinct word classes do numerals form, and how do classifiers alternate with them?
Counters for persons and things suffixed with -ne form adverbial expressions of quantity. (Refsing 1986: 135) Units of counting such as ras 'sheet(s)' and 'aynu 'person(s)' are classified as numeral units (num). (Murasaki 2025) Forms where a numeral is extended by a counter to form a number are always free forms. (Refsing 1986: 45)
The thing-counting suffix -p/-pe
How does the thing-counting suffix form counting nouns, and what entities can they refer to?
The numeral classifier -p/-pe is used for counting inanimates, animals, and human beings alike. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936, Refsing 1986: 111, 112) Numerals formed with -p(e) are never used adnominally and always appear in apposition when referring to an overt noun. (Refsing 1986: 117) Ainu numerals may occur with two suffixes: -p ~ -pe for things (from pe 'thing') and -n ~ -iw for human beings (from aynu 'human being'). (Alonso de la Fuente 2022: 5.3) The complex numeral forms for 2 and 3 can furthermore take the suffix -pish, as in tuppish. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The forms ending in -pish may have originally been distributive numerals meaning 'by twos' or 'by threes'. (proposed in Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The numeral sinep 'one (thing)' can also be used for human beings. (Satō 2008: 353)
The person-counting suffix -n/-iw
What are the allomorphs of the person-counting suffix, and on which numeral stems do they appear?
The classifier -n/-iw is used with numerals exclusively for counting human beings. (Refsing 1986: 111, 112) Numeral forms used for counting human beings may also occur in adnominal position preceding the noun. (Refsing 1986) The numeral sinen 'one person' followed by the copula ne forms the fixed idiom sinenne meaning 'alone' or 'by oneself'. (Refsing 1986: 117) The suffix meaning 'person' attached to numerals has the form -n after vowels and -iu after consonants. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) The numeral series shinen, tun, ren, inen, ashiknen, etc., is used exclusively for counting people. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) In the Rayciska dialect of Sakhalin Ainu, counting humans from one to five is formed by prefixing the bare numeral stem to 'aynu (e.g., sine'aynu, tu'aynu, re'aynu, 'iine'aynu, 'asne'aynu). (Murasaki 2025: 25)
Word-classifiers: to 'day' and suy 'time/turn'
How do the free nouns for 'day' and 'time/turn' function as mensural elements after numerals?
Days are counted using irregular or suppletive forms, such as sineto 'one day', tutko 'two days', rerko 'three days', and ine rerko 'four days'. (Refsing 1986: 113) The temporal idioms sine an pa ta '(then) one year' and sine an to ta '(then) one day' include the existential verb an, whereas an is omitted when counting duration. (Refsing 1986) Ainu possesses two word-classifiers used with numbers: to for counting days and suy for counting times. (Alonso de la Fuente 2022: 5.3) The suffix -sui is used to form iterative numerals (e.g., ar-sui 'once', tu-sui 'twice', re-sui 'three times'). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) Special numeral forms have developed for counting days: shine-to 'one day', tutko 'two days', rerko 'three days', ine-rerko 'four days', iwan-rerko 'six days', and hempak-rerko 'how many days'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) When counting occasions or times, the special term arsuy is used for 'once', alongside tusuy 'twice' and resuy 'three times'. (Refsing 1986)
Classifier or counter? The terminological debate
Is there disagreement about whether these elements count as numeral classifiers, and why?
In Pre-Proto-Ainu, numeral classifiers, if they existed, were a productive and distinct feature of the language. (Alonso de la Fuente 2022: 5.4) Nouns denoting units that combine with numeral adnominals to function as nouns or adverbs are called numeral classifiers (助数詞). (Murasaki 2025: 102) Ainu does not have numeral classifiers (counter words) such as Japanese -sō, -nin, or -mai, and all counting expressions are formed simply as numeral prenominal plus noun. (Nakagawa 2024: 462)
Ordinal expressions
How is ordinal meaning expressed if there is no dedicated ordinal word class?
Ordinal numerals are formed using otutanu (e.g., hoshki 'first', tu-otutanu 'second', re-otutanu 'third', ine-otutanu 'fourth'). (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936)
Quantifier syntax: three positions
What syntactic positions can numeral categories occupy, and how does each position affect meaning?
The adnominal use of the basic numeral morpheme occurs much less frequently than the appositional or nominal use of numbers. (Refsing 1986: 45) In texts, nominalized numerals are found to quantify only subject or direct object nominals, with no attested instances of oblique nominal quantification. (Shibatani 1990: 42)
Prenominal position
How does a bare numeral stem behave when placed before a noun, and what can intervene?
Most nouns can be counted by placing the basic form of the numeral directly in front of the noun. (Refsing 1986: 113) Numerals in their basic form are used exclusively in adnominal position. (Refsing 1986) A pronominal affix or a stative verb may be inserted between an adnominal numeral and the noun it modifies. (Refsing 1986) The numeral adnominal 'sine' (one) precedes a noun and does not change its form regardless of what noun follows it. (Satō 2008: 19) Numeral adnominals precede the noun they modify. (Satō 2008: 257) A quantifier precedes the noun it modifies in Ainu. (Shibatani 1990: 24)
Post-nominal (appositional) position
How does a numeral noun function in postnominal apposition, and what positional restriction applies?
When counters like -n/-iw or -p(e) are used, the counted noun often precedes the numeral, placing the numeral in apposition. (Refsing 1986) A restrictive postposition may intervene between the counted noun and the appositional numeral. (Refsing 1986: 117) Numeral nouns can occur either alone or directly following a lexical noun. (Satō 2008: 256) In the author's Ainu data, in the [Noun + Numeral Noun] construction, there are no examples of an intervening modifier between the noun and the numeral noun. (Satō 2008: 257)
Predicative (pure noun) position
How can numeral nouns serve as predicates or standalone heads without a co-occurring noun?
Numerals may stand alone without modifying an overt noun, functioning as pure nouns meaning simply 'one thing' or 'one person'. (Refsing 1986: 117) When a numeral functioning as a pure noun is followed by the copula ne, an adverbial expression is formed. (Refsing 1986: 117)
Quantifier float and the noun–numeral–verb pattern
Can the appositional numeral noun appear away from its head noun, and where may it occur?
Numeral–nominal number interactions
How does numeral value interact with singular versus plural forms of the counted noun?
When the copula ne follows a numeral before coordinative wa, it takes the same pronominal subject affix as the predicate of the following clause. (Refsing 1986: 117) The number of people acting together can be expressed either with numeral noun + verb ne + conjunctive wa, or with numeral noun + translative particle ne + verb. (Nakagawa 2024: 300)
Universal and approximative quantifiers
Which words function as universal or approximative quantifiers, and how are they used?
The prefix kes- means 'every', as in kes-to 'every day', kes-ukuran 'every evening', and kes-pa 'every year'. (Kindaichi & Chiri 1936) 'okore means 'all, both, everyone' referring collectively to the preceding elements, and can also be analyzed as an adverb. (Murasaki 2025: 103) ranke is a postposition meaning 'each', 'at a time'. (Murasaki 2025: 108) Most quantity nouns that do not contain a numeral are always free forms. (Refsing 1986: 45) The numeral iwan 'six' can occasionally be used to mean 'many', especially in oral literature and fixed sayings. (Refsing 1986) The numerals tu and re in combination can mean 'many', and in this meaning they are often reinforced by the prefix o-. (Refsing 1986) Quantity nouns like poronno 'a lot', ponno 'a little', opitta 'all', and inne 'a great many people' can occur in apposition to the noun they modify or function as pure nouns. (Refsing 1986) Among quantity nouns, only poronno and ponno can occur in adnominal position. (Refsing 1986) The morpheme ranke functions as a restrictive postposition after quantity nouns, carrying a distributive meaning '— each'. (Refsing 1986: 176) 'opítta and its inflected forms c-ópitta and 'eci-'opítta do not contrast with personal pronouns and do not belong to the personal pronoun paradigm, but share functions with quantity nouns such as sinép 'one' and sinén 'one person'. (Tamura 1972: 36)